AUTHOR

David Gleason (USA)

ABSTRACT

I. Introduction

ICT development and implementation continues to be extremely problematic, and many observers have recommended a professionalization, even licensing of its practitioners. This paper argues that a move to professionalism is needed, but that careful attention must be paid to the risks involved.

The paper will review the challenges to ICT development and implementation, explain how a “profession” of ICT might mitigate against these risks, and describe a possible conjunction of business motives that could lead to professionalization of ICT in industry.

The paper will use the evolution of professionalism in architecture and engineering to elucidate some of the advantages and disadvantages of professionalization.

II. Challenges to ICT Professionalism

A. Customization
More and more companies are implementing customized off-the-shelf applications, rather than developing applications from scratch. Nevertheless, customization itself can cost millions of dollars, requiring clear specifications and experienced, attentive developers.

B. Complexity
Within leading organizations, current ICT projects attempt to integrate Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Customer Relationship Management (CRM), e-mail (integrated with addresses, date book & to-dos), voice communications & voice mail, document management, supply chain management, sales, partner integration, web sites tied to real-time data, transportation, human resources, marketing, surveillance, security, collateral production, streaming video, and so on.
While such integration makes sense intellectually, in practice it is all but impossible. Some of the reasons it is so difficult include:

1. Simple mathematical complexity: the more components there are in a system, and the more people involved in its development, the more likely the project and the system will produce unpredictable results.
2. Diverse software applications running on many platforms and under varying standards
3. Variability in the competence, reliability and maturity of systems workers
4. Lack of established professional standards for both behavior and production
5. Lack of tools and too many competing development methodologies
6. The following, well known ICT project risks:
   • Subsumed faults: accumulated errors in complex IT systems
   • Risks of failure, including business failure
   • Risks of loss due to overruns or unreliable systems
   • Lack of effective communications standards
   • Unexpected system behavior

C. Obsolescence of equipment, software and knowledge
The knowledge base for developers changes substantially every 36 months. While companies like Microsoft, Cisco, Sun and many others offer certification, incentives are usually based on selling software licenses and upgrades. Sales and the evolution of the industry is exciting and leads to ever more-powerful systems, however, organizations are often pressed to apply cutting-edge technology where more established systems would work better for less money.

D. Operational Change
Organizations undergo major operational changes with the implementation of ICT systems. Processes that have been in place for years are altered. There is no easy way to minimize the impact on staff, other than to plan thoroughly, identify stakeholders broadly and evaluate project impacts, work through problems as they arise and to vigorously communicate on open issues until they are resolved. It is the nature of information systems that adoption is difficult for the people who have to use them. In an analogy, how would factory workers respond if they were told that the machines they had been working on for years were going to be replaced with new ones that worked completely differently?

The ICT adoption issues that organizations must work through are in part technical, but adoption also requires changing operating processes without disrupting the flow of business. It is like surgery: the patient must be kept alive and healthy during the operation. Often, companies do not pay enough attention to how much disruption IT implementations might cause. Professionals need to figure out how to mitigate the negative impact as much as possible throughout systems development and implementation.

AUTHOR

Nancy Pouloudi and Konstantina Vassilopoulou (Greece)

ABSTRACT

A large amount of work within current funded European projects concerns e-business-based models for work and business. Therefore, a common theme underlying these projects is the existence of experiences on developing and implementing e-business models. At the same time, however, there is a common limitation across most of these projects: the emerging knowledge on e-business models development only exists within these projects and despite the dissemination efforts, remains fragmented. Some projects concentrate on their specific market, while others concentrate on a specific industry sector, type of product, or technology stream. However, as these models represent value, which extends beyond this specific context, there is an unprecedented need for a deeper understanding and some specific actionable directions in boosting the research and market potential from the adoption of new models for business and work. Another limitation of this work is that it is very often driven by market imperatives. While the European Commission requires all projects to consider the socio-economic impact of the research results, in practice, more emphasis is given on the market exploitation of innovative products. This concentrates on economic rather than social issues. However, it is the social issues that define the broader context of electronic commerce adoption. The following paragraphs provide examples of some such social issues.

As new e-business models lead to new business practices they will affect work and consequently employment. Analysis of new skills and capabilities will be required. By focusing on dynamic capabilities that emerge from new business models and define new methods of work it is important to investigate the evolution of knowledge workers and consequently implications on employment. In this respect, attention needs to be paid both to organisations that will seek to offer value added services as well as to consumers and the new skills and attitudes that they will need to adopt. New business models are expected to influence everyday life as much as they will affect work and employment. For example, potential impacts on work and personal ways of living may be different depending on the social environment, so that there are different adoption patterns for electronic business in rural versus urban areas, in different national contexts, for different social classes, in densely populated or remote regions, and so on.

Information technology applications in the form of new e-business models provide a unique opportunity for European companies to go through the convergence learning curve, faster and with greater success. Accelerating the learning process within and between businesses in Europe is very important. The network infrastructure of the new economy offers a more level playing field with greater opportunities for all businesses whether they are in more or less developed economies. Effective e-business practices put in practice will give companies in Europe exposure and access to global markets at a fraction of the cost and the risk. The transfer of knowledge necessary for the companies to make the right steps ahead, through a training program in e-business best business cases and implementation approaches is required. Finally, the fast changing world of the Information Society will undoubtedly create vast educational requirements for new graduates and for the re-training of the existing workforce. Online e-commerce education programmes seem to become very important to the adoption of E-business models.

These examples related to the social environment on the one hand and on the business environment on the other indicate that the social impacts of e-business cannot be viewed independently from three other key themes in e-business adoption: individual, organisational and technical. To this end, we have started working on ‘E-factors: a thematic network on e-business models’, a project that brings together 16 partners, representing the regional diversity of the European Union and aiming to provide a holistic study of e-business model adoption. More specifically, e-factors supports the objectives of e-Europe by strengthening the dissemination of knowledge and understanding of e-business models and associated technologies. This dissemination has the potential to accelerate the take-up of appropriate information and communication technology solutions by adopting a holistic perspective to e-business adoption that integrates the study of individual, organisational, societal and technological aspects of e-business. The results of this study will provide Europe’s organisations and individuals with advanced knowledge and access to IST capabilities allowing quick take-up and entry to the digital age. The e-factors consortium works towards forming a co-ordinated network of activities for the exchange of knowledge and best practices – with the key aim to advance knowledge of the factors of broad and sustainable adoption of new business models – a dissemination of new state-of-the art knowledge in e-business models. The project also aims to construct a report that the European Union can use to formulate future strategic implications that take into account the diverse and complex social environment in which the changes incurred by e-business take place. Knowledge will be drawn from the expertise of leading universities and current IST projects conducting research in e-business models, their adoption and their socio-economic implications.

AUTHOR

Stephen Lilley (USA)

ABSTRACT

With Science and Technology Studies (STS) there is the penchant to describe scientific laws and the most established technologies, practices, and organizations as having been born out of instability and, if conditions and forces change, potentially returning to that state. Considering the burgeoning area of Internet research, it is fascinating just how fluid and dynamic a field can be. Deborah Johnson, James Moor and other pioneers believed that the unique nature of the Internet (for example, many-to-many communication, anonymity, and reproducibility) required the development of new theoretical approaches, similarly online researchers of today believe that they must develop the groundwork as they go.

When it comes to the very crucial issue of how to protect human subjects online, however, the lack of established and standardized protocols may be viewed as a weakness. This is compounded if the state of instability is contrasted with an established oversight system, which in America is most pronounced by the Common Rule and Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). However, I contend that this is a poor and fruitless comparison because 1) the American regulatory structure is, itself, unstable and 2) the unsettled nature of Internet research ethics is more positively characterized as flexible and open to the contingencies of fieldwork. In this presentation, I “turn the tables” on the assumed dominant-subordinate relationship– rather than describe how online research can be organized to appease or fit-in with the broader regulatory scheme, I suggest how the field can inform a long overdue reorganization of the American oversight system.

I take my cue from the National Bioethics Advisory Commission’s highly critical report on the U.S. regulatory review system. The Commission was charged by executive order in 1995 to provide recommendations to federal agencies regarding the oversight of research. Its final report entitled, “Ethical and Policy Issues in Research Involving Human Subjects,” released in August, 2001, characterizes the system of protections as a “patchwork arrangement” “no longer sufficient,” “too narrow in scope,” and “unnecessarily bureaucratic.” (Prologue, i) The Commission identified online research as one of many new forms of research (others included industry-sponsored, multi-site, and community research) for which the system is ill-suited.

Of relevance to this discussion is the Commission’s critique of IRBs (the local organizations responsible for independent reviews of academic research). It was acknowledged that IRBs are too rigid and cumbersome, more specifically, they 1) are overburdened by case loads, dominated by a medical-clinical approach to review, and often have poorly trained members; and 2) have limited flexibility in matching the risk level of proposed studies with an appropriate level of independent review. The Common Rule (the mandated policies and procedures for protection of human subjects), and in particular the rules regarding waivers for informed consent, were criticized as well.

The Commission seemed torn in its recommendations between more top-down control in terms of accreditation, required training of IRB members, specifying the constitution of the boards, etc, and its admission that greater flexibility would allow more sensitive reviews. Although online researchers do not speak with one voice, there is concern over research abuses and support for independent review, albeit of a flexible and subtle kind. Internet research presents difficulties in terms of establishing subject identities (because of pseudonyms and the use of multiple identities), it takes place in venues (e.g., chat rooms, email) that are diverse from each other and markedly different from clinical settings, and the possibility and strategies for informed consent are, accordingly, more complex and contextually specific. The one-model-fits-all approach of IRB reviews can not work under these unusual conditions.

A commitment to the Common Rule, and the expected universal adherence to it, can be, as well, an obstacle. For example, the Commission recognized that the restrictions under which informed consent may be waived (primarily written with clinical studies in mind) is too rigid and prohibitive of certain types of social scientific research. In its recommended re-writing of the rule, however, it retained provisions that may be prohibitive to online research, for example, that an adequate plan be in place for contacting participants.

As STS scholars are quick to point out, a set of policies and rules can never adequately cover the entire set of possible contingencies. Although this insight can be used to question the very practicality of a “common rule,” it need not be used to condemn IRBs and independent review. For instance, we recognize that online researchers have not reached a consensus regarding specific application of research norms, and that ethical decisions are often made on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless, it can be argued that under these open conditions it is even more imperative that some organization, or set of reviewers, is in place to consider the nuances of a study and at the same time serve as an advocate for subjects. Rather than rely on present IRBs, which are predominately run by academic institutions, however, the regulatory system should facilitate the development of specialized IRBs, for example boards under the auspices of professional research associations. This could address the concerns that current boards are over-stretched, both in workload and expertise.

Online researchers sometimes negotiate with subjects the extent of identity disclosure and observation, and this “grounded” negotiation may actually promote subjects’ autonomy and self-determination. Having review boards and policies that are similarly flexible makes sense. In conclusion, more than simply being the “straw that broke the camel’s back,” online research, by its very creativity and openness suggests the merit of having a more flexible, grounded review structure.

AUTHOR

Donald Gotterbarn (USA)

ABSTRACT

Terry Winograd [Winograd 1991] argued that ‘ethics’ and ‘values’ are not the kinds of things addressed with computer science theories, but they are “…a domain in which we interpret and address our actions as professionals”. Rather then talk about observing ethics he talks from the point of view of the participant in ethics and describes three models of doing computer ethics. He characterized one model as “the angel or devil debate”, a model where you know what is right but have to exercise the moral fiber to resist the temptation to do what is wrong. The primary reason that this is an inadequate model for computer ethics is that many of the issues of computer ethics are not clear but they have to be worked out before we could exercise the simple decision between the devil and the angel. A second model he described is one that might help with the analysis, it the “Morality Computer”. In this model, the moral rules of computer ethics are part of the internal program logic of a computer. One does ethics by entering into the computer data describing a moral situation and the computer applies the rules to the situations and the computer cranks out a decision that is a result of applying the ethical axioms to the moral situation. The Computer helps you apply the known rules in this case. This model, however, cannot adjust to the situations for applying these rules. The model does not take into account the dynamics and social interaction of the ethical situation.

This ethical computer approach is reminiscent of the approaches sometimes taken in philosophy. One could talk of the philosophical computer in which the moral rules were the principles of some philosophical theory. A utilitarian theory would for example use the computer to calculate the ethical thing to do by doing a hedonistic calculus. Philosophers and others have recognized this as a mistake. Nevertheless, computer scientists quite readily take up this philosophical computer concept. The author of this piece has co-authored an article [Anderson 1993 “Using the ACM Code of Ethics in Decision Making”] which loaded the computer with the ACM Code of Ethics and used it to show how ethical decisions could be made by applying the Code of Ethics.

Winograd’s choice for a model of computer ethics is based on his emphasis that ethics is an activity involving social interaction that changes as each new stakeholder is involved and that the actions of one stakeholder will change the situation for all of the other stakeholders. He calls the process of ethical decision making in this environment ‘Ethicing’ to emphasize that ethics is primarily an activity. He models ‘Ethicing’ with a troop of jugglers. Not only are they involved in constant activity but also they must incorporate evolving standards and practices.

Winograd is right about the social dynamic of the way in which we do ethicing, but I think he was mistaken to totally abandon the notion of the morality computer. He his right that the model of actually having the computer make the ethical decisions is incorrect, but the Morality Computer can still function as a tool to help us ensure that we do not overlook anything in the decision making process. The juggling model of ethical decision makers has the weakness of including significant distractions. The ethical deliberations may be incomplete or fail to account for significant stakeholders. We explore the hypothesis that a morality computer, which provides the form for ethical decision-making, can be useful in computer ethics.

The decision procedures examined and implemented include the basic decision elements of ethicing identified by McFarland [1991]. The minimal elements include gathering of facts, analyzing the data in a reasonable and logically consistent fashion, and basing the decision on sound ethical principles. The inclusion of all of this in a particular judgment is what is needed. Going through this process manually is a tedious and subject to error.

There are numerous ethical decision making processes. For a collection of process used since see Maner [1999]. Recently, two processes have been focused upon because of the way in which they meet McFarland’s criteria. These methods are Collin’s Paramedic method and Kvanvig’s Resolvedd method

In work done at the Software Engineering Ethics Research Institute we have developed software tools to automate these process. This should not be confused with Winograd’s “Morality Computer “. The software tool developed facilitate the correct use of these processes in a synergistic situation which might lead the ethical decision maker to ignore critical steps in the decision making process. These tools have been applied to several ethical cases. The paper will consist of demonstrating these tools and evaluating the underlying ethical decision methodology. The tools application to two cases will be demonstrated and the strengths and weakness of these models as revealed by the automation of the decision and its application to these two cases. It is believed this will show that a morality computer, which provides the form for ethical decision-making, can be useful in computer ethics. The software will be made available for use and research by other scholars.

REFERENCES

Anderson, Johnson, Gotterbarn, and Perrolle, “Using the New ACM Code of Ethics in Decision Making,” Communications of the ACM, 1993

Collins, Miller, “The Paramedic Ethics for Computer Professionals,”

Kvanvig, J.L., “The Resolvedd method,” 1999

Maner, “Heuristic Methods in Computer Science Decision,”1999
McFarland, “Urgency of ethical standards intensifies in computer community,” IEEE Computer 1990.

Winograd, “Computer, ethics, and Social Responsibility,” Computing and Human Values: Proceedings of the 1991 Conference, Eds. Terry Bynum and Walter Maner.

AUTHOR

Pat Jefferies and Simon Rogerson (UK)

ABSTRACT

This paper details a series of experiments in using asynchronous computer conferencing in supporting the learning and teaching of a final year undergraduate module to three cohorts of students. As such it illustrates the potential dimensions where IT and Internet technologies might be integrated to create a more effective and efficient learning and teaching environment within Higher Education (HE). It illustrates the way in which ICT can radically effect education establishments and the manner in which they interact with their students. The module specifically chosen for this study was a professional issues module entitled “Computing & Ethics”. This module is an optional final year module delivered to undergraduate students within the Faculty of Computing Sciences & Engineering who are based at two geographically dispersed campuses within the UK as well as to students based at an associate institution in Denmark.

As now widely acknowledged, the rapid expansion of networking capabilities and growing potential of access to such facilities is stimulating an exponential growth in the interest to develop technological resources to facilitate and enhance the learning experience within HE. This, coupled with the ‘political push’ and technological ‘pull’ currently prevalent in the UK, is encouraging educational institutions to experiment increasingly with tools which promote collaborative working which, in turn, are perceived to help in the development of more autonomous, responsible learners. Thus, it was not surprising that in delivering the same module to students on each of the three campuses that appropriate deployment of technology was considered to be worthy of investigation. Tutors based on each of the three campuses involved undertake delivery of the module and students are expected to achieve the same learning outcomes demonstrated through common forms of assessment. The module itself addresses the ethical and social responsibility issues surrounding advances in ICT. It considers in detail how the development of IT systems might encompass computer ethics and the value of professional codes of conduct are also discussed. Ethical concepts and consideration of computer ethics as a discipline provide a necessary philosophical foundation for this module and it draws heavily upon the research activity of the university.

Given the aims and objectives of the module it was felt self-evident that one of the major learning outcomes to be achieved was that students should develop their capabilities for moral judgment. Research has suggested there are a number of stages of moral development and that the highest stage of this (Level III, Stage 6) requires formulating abstract ethical principles and then upholding them to avoid self-condemnation”. (Kohlberg, 1969, 1972). It therefore follows that in order for students to attain this higher level that a social, discursive context seemed to be essential. As Lipman (1991) notes in a related idea called the “reflective model” of education, the conclusion is drawn that “the community of inquiry, especially when it employs dialogue, is the social context most reliable for the generation of higher-order thinking”. (McKendree, Stenning, Mayes, Lee and Cox, 1997). It seemed, therefore, given the nature of the computer ethics module, that learning should be largely underpinned by discussions around the various ethical issues encountered within real situations in order to develop this higher stage of moral development. A literature review at the time the module was first being developed did actually indicate that the use of prepared scenarios relating to ethical dilemmas were the preferred approach for those tutors currently teaching in the area. More recently Fleischman (2001) has lent further support to the adoption of this type of approach when he notes, there is a “need to engage the imaginative and empathetic powers of participating students in thinking about situations in which ethical conflicts may arise” (Fleischman, 2001, pp171-183). Promotion of a ‘deep’ approach to learning was also felt to be important in whatever techniques were to be used. As Davies (2001) notes ‘deep learning’ “is based on active involvement of the student in the learning material. Analysis and construction of the relationship of concepts leads to understanding.” (Davies, 2001, pp196-204). Thus it was felt that this module lent itself very well to the use of asynchronous computer conferencing in that it had the potential for both extending and supporting the wider discursive context.

This paper therefore seeks to explore some of the theoretical underpinnings that have prompted the adoption of asynchronous computer conferencing technology for group working in an HE environment. The paper will then go on to question the traditional approach of the “moderated” implementation of such technology with the campus-based student. For example, much of the literature suggests that computer-mediated conferencing has, to date, largely been used with adult, part-time, distance learning students and the emphasis on the tutor within this context has very much been on becoming a competent e-moderator. This particular approach is, however, questioned in relation to implementation with the campus-based student. It will then report on some of the issues actually encountered in implementing use of a particular collaborative working tool – WebCT – as an integral part of the learning experience within the teaching of the Computing & Ethics module. Such issues included determining which VLE might be appropriate, developing staff skills, determining the resources to be provided as well as in determining how to integrate and manage the discussion forum.

Finally the paper will reflect on the comments given by staff and students at the end of the experiment in order to provide an insight into some of the pedagogical and other issues that need to be considered to enable technologically facilitated collaborative methods to be effective in a campus-based HE environment. In doing some it will identify some of the key issues that need to be addressed for such an ICT application to be a beneficial driver of change.

AUTHOR

Cynthia Pandolfo and William Fleischman (USA)

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we discuss the results of a survey conducted among university undergraduates concerning unwanted contact and harassment through electronic mail and the Internet. This survey is the first in a projected series of studies designed to help provide a taxonomy for incidents of this nature and to identify important issues related to individual and community response.

The current study originated as a result of examination of issues raised in the paper of Professors F. Grodzinsky and H. Tavani, “Is Cyberstalking a Special Type of Computer Crime?”, presented at ETHICOMP 2001 in Gdansk, Poland. In their paper, Grodzinsky and Tavani consider whether cyberstalking constitutes a ‘genuine’ computer crime. They present a variety of arguments that cut both ways on this question. They cite the complicating factors of the possibility of anonymous or pseudonymous action and the difficulties posed by the matter of establishing jurisdiction in cases of electronic harassment. Nonetheless, they argue that the dangers associated with the exploitation of children and victimization of women suggest the need for a uniform statute on cyberstalking and effective mechanisms in the law to protect targets of harassment in cyberspace.

Investigation of the articles cited in Grodzinsky and Tavani, as well as other materials available on the World Wide Web and in print, reveals that there is considerable information published, though mainly of an anecdotal nature, relating to unwanted electronic contact, harassment, and cyberstalking in the professional setting and the world at large. Grodzinsky and Tavani discuss several of the most notorious instances of cyberstalking, cases in which electronic menace was ultimately converted into violent and deadly physical assault. Although we did not expect to uncover evidence of such an extreme nature, we were interested to study the prevalence and types of incidents of this nature in a university community, with a view to advancing understanding of the taxonomy of these incidents, the extent of the problem they pose, their effect on individual behavior, and the potential for constructive community measures of education, support, and protection. Recognizing the futility of regarding any single institution as an entity existing in electronic isolation, we nonetheless felt that there was value in analyzing the experiences of a sample of university undergraduates to look for important similarities with earlier reported incidents, both in the behaviors of those who initiated electronic harassment and in the responses of individuals who became the targets of such attention.

The survey on which we report was conducted at Villanova University, a selective mid-size private coeducational institution governed by the Augustinian Order of the Roman Catholic Church. We describe the overall demographics and special features of the undergraduate student population from which the study sample was drawn. We discuss aspects of the methodology of the study, including measures to protect the anonymity of respondents.

The survey questionnaire comprised a limited number of demographic items and separate sections relating to unwanted contact and harassment through electronic mail, instant messaging, and chat rooms. Questions requiring both specific information and unstructured open response were included.

Not surprisingly, the response rates and the nature of responses were significantly different for men and women. Although the term cyberstalking was not mentioned in either the survey questionnaire or the cover letter that accompanied it, several respondents used this word in characterizing an episode of on-line harassment the experienced. Other respondents indicated that feelings of annoyance, vulnerability, and anxiety induced them to curtail their use of the Internet.

Although the present study represents the initial stage in a wider inquiry, there are several matters of interest to report. We discuss quantitative and qualitative aspects of the survey responses received. The findings are helpful in suggesting a preliminary version of a taxnomy of incidents of harassment that may prove useful in guiding individual and community response. The finding that some individuals have curtailed their use of the Internet and other electronic resources is particularly significant in the context of an academic environment. We explore the advantages and limitations of the various legal, administrative, and informal measures available to university officials and members of its on-line community in reacting to or anticipating instances of harassment involving electronic mail and the Internet. Of particular interest, in this regard, are university community measures for education in the ethical use of electronic resources and for the protection and support of targets of on-line abuse. Finally, we discuss plans for the next phases of this research project. These plans include a comparative study of the experiences of individuals working in a professional capacity within the university.