AUTHOR

Richard Howley, Simon Rogerson, N Ben Fairweather and Lawrence Pratchett

ABSTRACT

Introduction

The importance of privacy and data protection (PDP) is now well established as a right for European citizens. This presents significant challenges to data controllers and information systems professionals. The role of information systems (IS) staff has emerged as critical in meeting these challenges. Previous research has shown that IS staff are actively involved in the provision of PDP and that they are supportive of this involvement. The same research identified ‘low levels of awareness’ with regard to PDP that may limit the contribution that IS staff can actually make in the provision for PDP. This research seeks to build on earlier quantitative research findings by examining the subjective perceptions that IS staff have with regard to the contribution they can and do make to the provision of PDP.

The study and methodology

Many researchers and commentators have identified the important contribution to PDP that IS staff can make in the design and development of IS. These contributions are normally expressed in an abstract and top-down manner, primarily concerned with statements of principle rather than as guides to professional practice. Elizabeth France in her role as the UK Information Commissioner was frequently quoted as promoting the concept of the ‘ethical engineer’, designing PDP into systems. France goes on to add that IS staff need to be ‘part of the solution rather than part of the problem’. Anton and Earp promote the role of PDP in ecommerce applications and acknowledge that PDP is often an afterthought rather than a fundamental design principle. A major step forward in understanding how IS staff can better support the development of PDP sensitive systems was provided in the work of Macaulay and Watts. They undertook an investigation into the way in which IS staff can actually embed PDP into IS. Their ‘Best Practice in SD’ study presents a set of principles and activities that if followed and applied may lead to more privacy sensitive systems being developed. The research reported on in this paper builds on, yet is different from, the work of Macaulay and Watts. Their work focuses on Systems Design and was undertaken by means of a telephone survey. This research takes a broader view of IS staff roles and seeks to explore the opportunities within all lifecycle activities and roles. Another fundamental difference is that this research seeks subjective insights from all levels of IS staff rather than relying on telephone respondents. Given this, the data this research is based on may be regarded as qualitatively richer than previous studies. The qualitative nature of the research provides insights that were not identified in previous research in this field.

In seeking insights into the subjective perceptions of IS staff with regard to their role in providing PDP the research was conducted in organisations from different industry sectors. The main research approaches used were case studies, focus group exercises and interviews. The study will build upon earlier survey results into levels of awareness and activities within which IS staff can contribute to the provision of PDP.

Findings

Findings and analysis are presented under the following headings:

• Levels of awareness: Implications and strategies.
• Who does PDP, how and when?
• Who can do PDP, how and when?
• PDP: The IS professional challenge.
• PDP: The organisational challenge.
• PDP: A strategy for action.

Conclusion

The research reported on in this paper builds on earlier research reported to ETHICOMP 2002 and as such it represents a ‘next stage’ in understanding the role of IS staff in providing PDP for European citizens. The complexity and importance of PDP for all citizens is increasing at an unprecedented rate and as a consequence, understanding the developing role of IS staff is critical in supporting citizens in the information society.

AUTHOR

David S. Horner

ABSTRACT

Computer Ethics has, as one of its aspirations, that of reducing the probability of the unforeseen and undesirable effects of computer technologies (Rogerson, 2002). The social control of information and communication technology, it is argued, depends on our ability precisely to foresee such undesirable and often unintended effects. We should strive, therefore, to sharpen our forecasting tools. In a recent paper I argued a highly sceptical case that such efforts to accurately predict the future consequences of advances in computer technologies were largely futile (Horner 2003). This claim proved controversial and was greeted itself with a high degree of scepticism. What seems to me a truism seems to others a heresy. The proponents of ‘futurism’ are reluctant to abandon a commitment to anticipating ‘the shape of things to come’ as a base for policy formation and the social control of technology. Intuitively it seems perverse perhaps to deny knowledge of the future given that we seem to operate with such knowledge with our every planned action. In this paper I wish to address some of the arguments that seem to sustain a belief in the power and usefulness of prediction in the context of recent anxieties about ‘the coming era of nanotechnology’.

The urgency of such issues is underscored by, for example, by a new round of prediction associated with advances and anticipated advances in nanotechnology (Margolis, 2001, pp. 117 – 118). We are already being asked to consider the social and economic implications of such a ‘nanotechnological future’ created by computing at the at the quantum level. Nanotechnology promises to create one of those policy vacuums that Computer Ethics was created to address. Jim Moor and John Weckert (2003) have already alerted us to the possibilities of the amplification of traditional ethical problems with the vastly extended scale of data capture this new technology may provide. In addition completely new ethical issues may arise from predicted extensions to human longevity. Even more alarming are the scenarios of ‘nanobots’ out of control (the so called ‘grey goo’ phenomenon). Should we then create a ‘nanoethics’ based on such predictions?

My reason for scepticism concerning such a predictive enterprise is that decisions about the future are, as Collingridge (1987) maintains, ‘decisions under ignorance’. We just don’t know what’s going to happen so whatever decisions we make can’t be made on the basis of what we know about the future. Indeed the empirical evidence suggests that most predictions about the future turn out to be woefully inaccurate (Dublin 1990; Margolis, 2001). Our ability to know the future, particularly when dealing with pervasive technologies that are embedded in society in complex ways, vanishes practically to zero. There are a number of important effects that limit our knowledge of the future. Firstly, ‘information effects’ – the effect of limited information and the impossibility of assembling ‘complete information’. Secondly, Oedipus effects – the effect of making a predictive statement about circumstances to which that statement refers (Popper 1994). Thirdly, ‘revenge effects’ the familiar phenomenon of technologies often producing the opposite effects to those that were originally intended (Tenner,1997).

Critics have rejected such radical scepticism on a number of grounds. Firstly, for example, in the case of Y2K could we not justly say that the very nature of programming problem gave us a sound predictive base for anticipating the potential outcomes and indeed the remedy? A combination of both causal and logical necessity in this case meant that we could with confidence identify the need to install new versions or at least fix the old versions of software. Secondly, isn’t it simply a logical fallacy to move form the proposition that ‘we can’t know everything’ to the claim that ‘therefore we can know nothing’. Doesn’t our (scientific) knowledge of the past and present provide sufficient indications of the (probable) course of future events? And finally to accept the full force of the sceptic’s argument is a counsel of despair. At best it will proscribe ambitious and potentially beneficial technological developments (such as nanotechnology) and at worst will result in paralysis and a failure to address those policy vacuums that Computer Ethics is meant to address. The paper will evaluate these critical responses to the sceptic’s argument but seek to show how we proceed ethically in ignorance of the future. And in order to do this we must distinguish between three different questions: Could it happen? Should it happen? Will it happen? (Twiss, 1992, p.25).

REFERENCES

COLLINGRIDGE, D., (1987) Criticism – its philosophical structure, Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

DUBLIN, M., (1990) Futurehype: the tyranny of prophecy. Ontario: Penguin,

HORNER, D.S., (2003) The error of futurism: prediction and computer ethics. In: F.S. Grodzinsky, R.A. Spinello and H.T. Tavani, eds. Proceedings for CEPE 2003 and Sixth Annual Ethics and Technology Conferences. Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, June 25 – 27, 2003. Boston: Boston College, pp. 66 – 76.

MARGOLIS, J., (2001), A brief history of tomorrow: the future, past and present. London: Bloomsbury.

MOOR, J. and WECKERT, J., (2003) Nanoethics. Unpublished paper presented at CEPE 2003, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, June 25 – 27, 2003.

ROGERSON, S., (2002) Computers and society. In: R.E. Spier, ed. Science and technology ethics. London: Routledge, pp. 159 – 179.

POPPER, K., (1994) The poverty of historicism, Routledge, London.

TENNER, E., (1997) Why things bite back: predicting the problems of progress, Fourth Estate, London.

TWISS, B.C., (1992) Forecasting for technologists and engineers: a practical guide. London: Peregrinus.

AUTHOR

Kenneth Einar Himma

ABSTRACT

There are a number of controversial claims being made about the foundation of computer and information ethics as a discipline of applied ethics or normative ethics. Some writers, like Walter Maner, believe that computing technologies instantiate unique properties that give rise to fundamentally different problems that constitute computer ethics as a distinct subdiscipline of applied ethics. Others, like Luciano Floridi, argue that information ethics constitutes a novel normative ethical theory; on his view, every existing thing in the world has intrinsic value “qua information object” – an information object being an abstract object that contains information that describes the properties, functions, and behavior of the relevant thing.

In this essay, I wish to consider the different issue of whether we have intuitive reason to think that information (as opposed to “information objects” – which is a very specific sort of set) has intrinsic value and hence gives rise in us to a morally protected interest in information. At first glance, the claim that every informative proposition has intrinsic value seems to have a strong intuitive foundation in the commonplace view that knowledge is valuable, not only for what it enables us to do in the world, but also for its own sake. It seems reasonable to think, on this line of analysis, that knowledge can be intrinsically valuable only to the extent that information is intrinsically valuable; after all, the objects of knowledge are informative propositions.

I argue that the claim that knowledge has intrinsic value will not support the claim that information has intrinsic value for two reasons. First, the most plausible construction of the claim that knowledge is intrinsically valuable holds that the intellectual activities involved in pursuing knowledge, rather than the propositional objects of such activities, are intrinsically valuable to rational beings like ourselves; this construction of the claim does not, however, imply that information is intrinsically valuable. On this line of analysis, it is a morally good that essentially rational beings like us pursue activities that enable us to realize our nature and to improve our rational faculties. The pursuit of information, then, resembles other activities that are pursued for their own sakes: it is the activity itself and not the objects of that activity that is valued for its own sake.

Second, and more importantly, it is probably false that most people regard information as having intrinsic value qua information. There are a variety of informative propositions that are not plausibly characterized as having any value, intrinsic or otherwise. For example, it is reasonable to think that knowing the number of hairs that George Bush has on his head at this moment in time would not make me even a slightly better person from the standpoint of morality. Such trivial information not only lacks any significant instrumental value (i.e., as a means towards some valuable end), but also lacks any intrinsic value at all. But if information as a kind of thing has intrinsic value, it must be the case that every piece of information is intrinsically valuable in virtue of having an informative nature. Since how many hairs George Bush has on his head lacks such value, it follows that information is not intrinsically valuable as a kind – though it remains true that some pieces of information may have intrinsic value because of their specific content (e.g., information concerning the meaning of life or God’s existence).

The foregoing suggests that the altogether intuitive claim that knowledge has intrinsic value is misleading in an important respect. While we tend to promote knowledge (and hence education) as being valuable regardless of whether or not it happens to conduce to the achievement of other values, we believe that this is true of only those areas of inquiry that have proven to have significant value as a means to other human ends. It is noteworthy in this regard that the proponent of such a claim usually has in mind mathematical, scientific, literary, philosophical and ethical knowledge – all areas of inquiry that have resulted in significant instrumental benefits to the human condition. This suggests that the very intuitive claim that knowledge is intrinsically valuable should be construed as including only certain areas of inquiry and hence as including only certain kinds of information – and not information in general.

The results of this line of argument is that the claim that we have a morally protected interest in information that is not derived from either its value as a means to other ends or from other morally protected interests, such as the interest in freedom of expression, is left without critical support. To the extent that human beings have a morally protected interest in information, it will be limited to those areas of inquiry that can potentially result in significant instrumental benefits. While this is consistent with the claim that information ethics is a distinct subdiscipline of applied ethics, it suggests that information ethics is not plausibly thought of as giving rise to (or presupposing) a novel general ethical theory. Information ethics, then, is perhaps unique at the level of application, but not at the level of general ethical theory.

AUTHOR

Andra Gumbus and Frances Grodzinsky

ABSTRACT

Women as individuals experience subtle discrimination regarding career development opportunities as evidenced by research on the Glass Ceiling. This paper looks at the ramifications of technology, specifically the Internet, and how it affects women’s career opportunities. Some questions explored are:

• Are women less likely to use technology in their career development initiatives?
• How has the Glass Ceiling impacted women in the technology field?
• How has computer technology impacted networking as a career strategy?
• Are women adversely affected by the use of the Internet in securing employment?
• Does the use of Internet recruiting and paperless HR departments adversely impact women as candidates?
• Is the hierarchical male power structure maintained by the increased use of technology by corporate recruiters and other hiring managers?

Part One of the paper will investigate women and technology in general including issues of gender bias. It will examine the literature on women seeking careers in technology and look at women’s use of technology in their career development initiatives. Part Two will explore the glass ceiling in the area of ICT jobs and the obstacles to managerial advancement. Part Three will look at the issues of networking as a career strategy and how the Internet has impacted it. Part Four will examine the question of recruitment on line and ask if women are disadvantaged by paperless Human Resource Departments. The authors will show that for women to overcome gender bias, the glass ceiling and consequently under representation in upper level ICT management positions, there needs to be a change in educational practices and corporate culture.

In today’s workplace, computer skills are a prerequisite to prepare for jobs, but they do not ensure access to managerial or well paying jobs. Women, who eschew technology, limit themselves to traditional job searches, which may put them at a disadvantage. The Internet provides a wealth of information about companies, hiring practices and job opportunities to those with the skills to access the information. Posting resumes on Monster.com or searching job postings on university websites can often advantage a candidate for a job because of the speed and easy communication paths afforded by the Internet. The development and use of computers bestows power on the user and conversely, lack of power for those who are not connected.

As we become increasingly dependent upon technology in our lives, women must have equal access and ability to manipulate technology to advance their careers. Networking has moved on line. Online networking is effective using chat rooms, email and interest groups in a current or targeted industry. A web site is a good starting point to learn about a company, product line, key management profiled on a site, financials, annual reports or other information on a future employer. As a long-term strategy to manage careers, technology can be used to send an occasional email or informal chat to maintain contact, or pass along an article or Internet link to a past employer, colleague, search firm or others in the network. Online networking is also critical to notify your network of your new job, added responsibility, or other career enhancements so your network is familiar with your current situation and can represent you accurately (Gumbus, 2003).

Yet, there may be a downside for women posting resumes on Internet sites. Moor (1997) speaks of computerized information as greased data and states, ” our challenge is to take advantage of computing without allowing computing to take advantage of us. When information is computerized, it is greased to slide easily and quickly to many ports of call. This makes information retrieval quick and convenient, but legitimate concerns about privacy arise when this speed and convenience lead to the improper exposure of information.” The resulting electronic footprints of information collected for one purpose can be used for another. Our privacy can be invaded despite attempts to guard and secure computerized information. This may discourage women from using electronic media in their job searches if they are not familiar with ways to hide personal data.

Is the culture of ICT companies changing to be more inclusive to women? Business organizations are experiencing increased pressure to value diversity in employment in order to attract a diverse customer base in our increasingly global marketplace. Logically, this trend should exploit the talents represented by women and help them gain access to the top positions in organizations. Legislation and affirmative action quotas do not easily mandate ethical and equitable treatment regarding assignments and high profile opportunities. Our study will explore the promotional opportunities for women to break through the glass ceiling (lack of upward mobility for women and minorities into executive ranks in corporate jobs today) in ICT including networking opportunities, mentoring by senior women, assignments that are visible and of high importance, and being technologically competent. Traditionally, the road to the top positions has been described as blocked by corporate prejudice resulting in lack of support for women and sponsors (mentors). In 1986, the biggest obstacle was labeled as intangible, ” men at the top feel uncomfortable with women beside them.” (Hymowitz and Schellhardt, 1986). These authors predicted that the glass ceiling may be reduced in some fields but technology was not one of them. Is that still true today? Have we seen changes? The paper will try to answer these questions and examine what we lose if women do not have a significant impact in the design of technology.

To find out answers to some of our questions the authors queried human resource managers. They were asked to respond to the following questions in order to assess the impact of technology on recruitment practices as it affects women.

• Do you post positions on the web?
• What sites do you use?
• Are web, email and snail mail responses treated differently? How?
• In your opinion, do candidates protect their personal identity when submitting a resume?
• Can you give examples of how someone protected identity when using technology to apply for a job.
• Are women as likely as men to use technology in searching for a job? Why?

The paper will discuss the results of this survey and the implications for women in the ICT field.

REFERENCES

Gorniak-Kocikowska, K. and Pakszys, E.B. Women, ICT, values and the future, proceeding of Ethicomp International conference, Lisbon, Portugal, 2002.

Gumbus, A. Networking: A long term management strategy, Clinical Leadership & Management Review, May/June 2003

Gumbus, A and Lussier, R. Career Development: Enhancing your networking skills, Clinical Leadership & Management Review, Jan/Feb 2003.

Hafner, Katie. Techies by necessity, not by choice. The New York Times, July 24, 2003.

Hymowitz, C and Schellhardt, T. The glass ceiling: why women can’t seem to break the invisible barrier that blocks them from the top jobs. The Wall Street Journal, 03/24/198

Moor, James H.. Towards a theory of privacy for the information age. Computers and Society, Vol 27, No. 3 pp. 27-32.

Turner, E. ( 2001 ) The Case for responsibility of the computing industry to promote equality for women, Science and Engineering Ethics Journal, vol 7, no 2, P 247 – 260 Opragen Publicatio

Turner, Eva, Gendered future of the computer profession, establishing an ethical obligation on the computing educators, proceeding of Ethicomp International conference, Lisbon, Portugal, 2002.

AUTHOR

Viorel Guliciuc and Emilia Guliciuc

ABSTRACT

In the ’40s of XXth century, Martin Heidegger was meditating on the relation between “Dasein” and “Gestell”. His conception was often rejected for his traditionalism and lack of adaptation at the Presence of the Technology in the contemporary society.

Nowadays, analyzing the information and communication technologies (ICTs) and theirs tendencies, we cannot imagine our lives without them. So, Heidegger has, partially, right to speak about the “dictatorship of the instrumental” in the contemporary societies.

In order to argue such an idea, we can use the following Net’s characteristics:

1. It is a chaotic complexity in an exponential growth;
2. It has a certain reductionism;
3. It is characterized by strong anti-democratic tendencies;
4. It is the best example of the sacred dictatorship of the Tool

1. As mega-tool, the Internet is an unstructured complexity, a chaos comprising only islands of order. His most appropriate description is near the one proposed by Ludwig Wittgenstein for the world itself: a chaotic labyrinth of small streets and squares, of new and old houses, built without a clear architectural plan, near new districts, with right streets and uniform buildings etc.

   The Net is growing with 1, 5 – 2 millions pages every day and the obvious tendency is an increasing one in the next years. This growth is over passing the possibilities of the professional user of the ICTs to index, search and retrieve the information he need. As for the common user, the situation is even more dramatic: he is spending and wasting a lot of precious human time in order to understand that the Net is eventually an unstructured, unpredictable and unsearchable aggregate.

   What must be done if we want to extract more order from the Internet?

   The “WWW” authorities have increased the number of the “top domain names” in an attempt to produce more order in the Net. But other solutions would be useful, too – like are Knowledge Management (KM) technologies, for example.

2. On the other hand, one can observe the reductionism in the Net’s communications growth and functioning: the depletion of the writing styles into the styles appropriate for e-publishing; the decreasing – as percentage – presence of the small and rare languages; the depletion of the type of files used for the creation of web sites; the decreasing number of the value office suites etc.

   As an example, a comfortable majority of the pages published on the Net are written in English. The general tendency is to transform English in the lingua franca of the “Information Society” / “Global Society”. This fact can dramatically affect the essential polytrophic / diversity of the human being and language and eventually reduce the richness of the human insertion in the reality, by the loose of the differences.

   We need to understand the ideas of “Divers Information Society” or “Global Diversified Society”. That is why we need to create and to put in work a new type of tools, in order to preserve and to promote our diversity. The Knowledge Management technologies can be such an answer, but on a semantic platform – like are, for example, the Arisem company’s ones.

3. On the other hand, the accessibility of the ICTs is very restrictive one nowadays. Despite the general acceptance of the idea that the Net is favourable for the democracy, there are some aspects that can be discussed in order to see that it is also an elitist business story.

   The costs of the essential Net technologies are largely over passing the resources of the poor countries and communities, which are forced to work and survive without the ICTs. That is why the future of the e-democracy in those countries is an uncertain one.

   On the other hand, the training of the work force in the ICTs fields is also restrictive for many countries, communities and individuals. That is why their real access to the benefits of the e-democracy will be always an incomplete one, without that literacy.

   Even more important, the top ICTs technologies can be used in order to assure and improve the advantage of a rich minority against the claims of a less chanceful majority, by the huge quantity of useful information which can be extracted from the Net.

4. Our increasing dependency to the ITCs is step by step transforming the Internet in a new religion. We can observe that the Net is becoming a transcendent Presence in our lives: being present on the Net means, nowadays, literally, existing in the real world. The virtual reality is forcing to replace the reality itself by effacing the classical differences between reality and possibility. The professionals of the Net are as the common priests, they have specific rituals, specific beliefs to defend etc. etc.

   Can we accept the thesis of the dictatorship of the Net against the Human Diversity?

   Only partially: as the Tool of the contemporary-and-future-society, the Internet is reversing his relation with the human being, putting the human being into a dependency. Such a process will bad affect the human essence, by restricting his liberty.

   Can we avoid those undesirable evolutions?

   Yes. In order liberate the human being from the instrumental dependency we must make the Tool to work on the Tool itself. The most convenient seems to be the use of the semantic and natural language information indexing, search and retrieval technologies, the Knowledge Management technologies.

AUTHOR

Fritz H. Grupe and Jeanne Yamaura

ABSTRACT

Counseling, therapy and advice giving services have increasingly been appearing on the Internet. The capacity to deliver these services has advanced, in some cases, more rapidly than has our ability to understand the ethical implications of how these services create, not only new opportunities, but also new ethical issues for practitioners. Client/patient relationships with professionals (and with unlicensed “professionals”) who assist in the resolution of their clients’ problems are seen in disciplines as diverse as religious counseling, family and marriage counseling, psychotherapy, college selection and financial aid assistance, career counseling, telemedicine, research support, business consulting, substance abuse counseling and personal/professional coaching. Some professional organizations (e.g., the American Counseling Association) have begun to address the online practices of their members through the adoption of codes of ethics for online counseling that supplement their off-line codes of ethics. Most practitioners of these forms of counseling and advice giving are not governed by or even aware of those codes that have been promulgated. Many professional groups have not adopted codes of ethics that specifically address the use of the Internet for service delivery, leaving these practitioners with little ethical guidance.

This paper discusses the structure for a successful interactive relationship between an adviser and a client. Following a discussion of the pros and cons for offering helping services of this nature online, this paper will review and examine the codes of ethics that have been promulgated and of guidelines that have been created. It will synthesize points of agreement and differences among them. Even with the emergence of some guidelines, issues about the delivery of such advice giving services exist. A summary of how various technologies are being employed to deliver counseling services will be developed (e.g. email, interactive web sites, newsgroups, LISTSERVs, virtual reality, chat rooms, instant messaging, etc.). This paper will identify and describe the key issues that have begun to appear. It will also summarize the consensus as to how professionals should deal with this issue. Some debate exists, for example, particularly among licensed and certified professionals, over the desirability of even offering therapeutic or some identifiable subset of services in online formats, as opposed to strictly limiting these services to traditional, one-on-one and group settings. Other issues include:

• Do the principles adopted by licensed and certified professionals apply to services in
  non-licensed/certified settings?
• Do ethical considerations change when services are provided for a fee or given away for free?
• What are the various forms of online advice delivery and does the ethical framework for evaluating the
  desirability of such delivery change.
• Are the standards for online service delivery more restrictive than they are for online than for the
  delivery of equivalent services in real-life?
• What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of various online media and how are they best employed?
• What levels and forms of security are needed to protect client identity and to prevent the disclosure of
  personally identifiable information? Under what conditions?
• Does the essence of a relationship of a client with a professional advice/care dispenser suffer as a consequence of delivering services online?
• What are the protections end users have or should expect when contracting for or receiving online services?
• Are there any problems that indicate that some forms of advice giving should be proscribed from online service delivery because they are exacerbated by the nature of the delivery system
• Is an informed consent form necessary? Desirable? Under what conditions should they be used?
• What steps should the deliver of services take to protect himself/herself and to properly inform the client (e.g., types of disclaimers and other range of competence indicators)?
• Do web site managers that mediate contacts between multiple practitioners and clients have any special responsibilities to the parties involved?

The paper will present taxonomy of questions that both the user and the advisor should be asking about their relationship in order to ensure that the relationship is beneficial and ethical. It will include examples of ethical problems that have affected online counselors as they have practiced their profession. The paper will also highlight the key literature in this field for practitioners to review when evaluating their own, online delivery mechanisms.