AUTHOR
Ugo Pagallo

ABSTRACT

It is well-known how important the concept of “ignorance” is in the history of philosophy: It is enough to mention Socrates’ awareness of not-knowing, Nicholas of Cusa’s De docta ignorantia, and in more recent times Friedrich Hayek’s work and his appeal to British empiricists such as John Locke and John Stuart Mill.

This very concept of ignorance, however, has seldom been discussed by philosophers dealing with technology. Indeed, they mostly speak about technology in terms of knowledge and power, and, more specifically, of savoir-faire. Even when a Heideggerian approach to the whole issue is adopted – by denouncing the fate of a civilization driven by the blind force of technology – the crucial role of ignorance is significantly lost.

My aim here is to study technology and hence the possibility suggested by the topic of our Ethicomp meeting – living, working, and learning beyond technology – following an evolutionary approach. Technology is only one of the fundamental ways through which we adapt to our environment by reducing its complexity. Whatever informational complexity may be found in technology, it is necessarily smaller than the environmental complexity that technology tackles. Consequently, the purpose of the paper is to analyze this structural ignorance which lies behind technology, according to a twofold perspective.

First of all, I look at what could be called specific ignorance: this occurs when we know that we do not know a lot of things about definite (side-)effects of technologies such as bio-devices like OGM, or mobile phones and radio-technologies. It suffices to mention the five “big challenges” pointed out by fourteen renowned experts in nano-technology and security on “Nature” in November 2006, or the six points stressed by the International Commission for Electromagnetic Safety in September 2006. These are good examples of ignoring specific facets of a far more complex problem which involves technology.

Secondly, it is crucial to examine what could be called a-specific ignorance, namely when we ignore even what we do not know. This was the case, say, of CFCs in our fridges – in use since the 30s and outlawed only in the 80s and 90s – or of the use of asbestos in buildings (banned in the UE but still used in Canada as well as in the U.S.).

The paradox of ignorance, both specific and aspecific, has produced some remarkable theoretical outputs: for instance, Plato’s dialectics or Ferguson’s theory of social evolution. More recently, the fundamental role of ignorance in technology has been deepened by research on science assessment and even on the reasons why civilizations collapse. By considering both philosophical and scientific approaches to the issue, it is therefore clear why we are driven to reflect and, so, to live, work, or learn, beyond technology. From an evolutionary perspective, the aim is always to reduce the complexity of the environment that, however, transcends human capacities in compressing all the information required by this continuous adaptive attempt. Whatever kind of ignorance we have to cope with – because of the asymmetry between environmental and systemic information, even technologically processed – it hence becomes necessary to focus on a paramount issue in ethics and, more specifically, in computer ethics.

The final section of the paper analyzes the role of ignorance in our decisions, by considering the connection between the principle of prevention and/or precaution and the principle of openness. On one hand, we should prevent action because of our ignorance; on the other hand, ignorance suggests we should engage in action. So, what tells the former principle from the latter cannot be ignorance itself since sometimes it is better to be cautious, especially when we know what we are not knowing and, other times, it simply works the other way round. Thus, what allows us to strike a balance between these two principles is the amount of information involved in our decisions. While the principle of prevention is to be applied when it is likely that a technological choice would reduce the complexity of the system, e.g., by killing human beings or destroying the biological support of our societies, on the contrary, the principle of openness should be applied when ignorance is a mere pretext to limit the potentialities of any given new technology. A good example of the principle of openness was offered ten years ago (1998), when the U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional part of the Communications Decency Act “due to the particular nature of the mean,” i.e., the Internet. The right equilibrium between the principle of openness and the precautionary principle has yet to be found in many cases: All in all, we do know there are no magic bullets toward such an equilibrium. But, thanks to this known unknown, it is however clear why we are already moving beyond technology. The issue at hand is ignorance and its ethical role in evolution.

AUTHOR
Yohko Orito, Kiyoshi Murata, Steve McRobb and Andrew A. Adams

ABSTRACT

In today’s Net society, an online privacy policy has become to be posted in almost every commercial as well as governmental website. In keeping with this trend, a lot of studies on online privacy policies have been made and some of them pointed out interesting contestations concerning the effectiveness of the policies. For instance, Pollach (2007) suggests that online privacy policies have been drafted with the threat of privacy litigations in mind rather than commitment to fair data handling practices. However, this is not surprising from the viewpoint of the Japanese socio-cultural circumstances surrounding information privacy; whereas information and communication technology has the global nature, phenomena concerning it may have to be examined from the local standpoint. Nevertheless, it seems that there are few studies which attempt to analyse the effectiveness of online privacy policies taking local socio-cultural factors into account.

In light of such recognition, at ETHCOMP 2007, the authors announced to launch a cross-cultural research project on online privacy between Japan and UK (McRobb et al, 2007). This aims to examine whether, and how, privacy policies are differently perceived in Japan and UK cultures that have different understandings of the privacy, and of its social value. We believe that it will be helpful to identify how information privacy is recognized, what are peoples’ attitudes towards it, in two very different cultures, and to guide organizations to become more culturally sensitive in their statements and practice concerning information privacy. As part of the research project, this study is conducted focused on Japan.

A piece of evidence which demonstrates the existence of differences in understanding of the social value of information privacy between Japan and UK may be found in contents of online privacy policies. Nowadays, business organizations that operate their business globally usually construct and run their multilingual websites on which privacy policies written in respective languages are posted, and differences in contents and/or statements of the privacy policies between languages, if any, should be a good clue to investigate differences in understanding of the social value of information privacy between countries.

For example, UNIQLO, a Japanese casual wear manufacturing and selling company, which operate their business in Japan, UK, France, US and so on, run multilingual e-commerce sites on which their privacy policies are posted. Even though goods and services provided by UNIQLO Japan and UNIQLO UK are almost same, contents of privacy policy posted on the UK site is different from one on the Japanese site. Compared with the Japanese version of privacy policies, the UK version contains more specific statements in terms of data subjects’ rights. This difference may reflect different expectation of people in the two countries towards privacy online. The authors will analyse several Japanese companies’ privacy policies online based on the Japanese socio-cultural characteristics.

In addition to analysing online privacy policies, in this paper, analysis of results of a questionnaire survey, which provides material for a preliminary study to investigate Japanese youngsters’ consciousness about online privacy, will be conducted. Respondents to the questionnaire are third and fourth year students at Japanese universities who are expected to have more experience of online shopping than their parents’ generation; they tend to be less hesitant to access online shopping sites and use credit cards online than their parents. The questionnaire includes questions in order to check respondents’ individual attributes, experience of Net access and online shopping, knowledge on online shopping such as cookies, secure site seals or privacy seals and phishing, and understanding of and attitude towards online privacy policies.

Owing to certain socio-cultural and linguistic characteristics, Japanese people often consider the right to privacy to be a subjective and timeserving concept and they attach less importance to this right than do Westerners. However, in step with the progress of the information society, it is often alleged that the number of Japanese people who have concerns about invasion of the right to information privacy is increasing. The analysis and survey conducted in this study may be useful to evaluate whether the allegation is true or not.

In conjunction with other statistics and survey results published by, mainly, governmental organisations, the result of this survey will be used to analyse Japanese youngsters’ consciousness about the right to information privacy and online shopping behaviour. Our previous studies including ones presented at ETHICOMP 2005 and 2007 (Orito and Murata, 2005; 2007) would be helpful for understanding the implication of this survey from the viewpoint of Japanese culture and tradition.

Similar investigation and survey will have to be done in UK in order to achieve the objectives of our cross-cultural research project. Moreover, it should be interesting and fruitful to conduct the survey in other countries such as China and Korea as well as other European countries to compare privacy online between the East and the West and between countries in the East or the West.

REFERENCES

McRobb,S.,Orito,Y.,Murata,K.,Adams,A.(2007)“Towards an exploration of cross-cultural factors in privacy online” , ETHICOMP2007, Tokyo,Japan.

Orito, Y. and Murata,K.(2005), “Privacy protection in Japan: cultural influence on the universal value”, ETHICOMP2005, Linkoping, Sweaden.

Orito, Y. and Murata,K.(2007), “Rethinking the concept of information privacy: a Japanese perspective”, ETHICOMP2007, Tokyo,Japan.

Pollach,I.(2007), “What’s wrong with online privacy policies?”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 50, No. 9,pp.103-108.

AUTHOR
Denise Oram

ABSTRACT

The spread of global computer networks is continually making radical changes to our society. The Internet generates a major change in human behaviour and consequently in ethical values, this in turn creates new situations and new problems. There has been a proliferation in the growth and use of Web 2.0 technologies and they are becoming a major feature and driver in the education process. The aim of this paper is an attempt to address and raise awareness of the issues and considerations that web 2.0 technologies present and create for both the teacher and learner alike and for society as a whole.

If we are to adopt these technologies as drivers in the learning process, it is of critical importance to acknowledge the issues they raise and explore possible solutions and directions to take when considering them as the new learning style.

Educational issues have to be addressed in the development of Web 2.0 technologies in the representation of learning outcomes, and in adequate teaching and learning strategies to meet the diverse needs of all students, taking into consideration their individual cognitive abilities.

The paper explores e-learning as the new learning style and the driver to the personalisation of learning and assesses the pedagogical benefits in the process of learning. The benefits and downfalls of Web. 2.0 technologies and future e-learning technologies will also be identified as well as highlighting the ethical and moral implications they have upon society. According to John West-Burnham (2004), “Personalizing learning is fundamentally and profoundly a moral issue”

This paper also explores the societal effects of these technologies as there is a proliferation in their use especially amongst the younger members of society, how far do they use them as a tool or are they themselves becoming tools and slaves to the technology? How much time associated with using these technologies is causing a blur between work, play and learning and endless hours of isolation for the user?

There are problems of isolation and addiction with people spending endless hours of their lives living a life that is not their own but one that is appealing to their social peers as with “Second Life”. People are prone to losing their own sense of reality and identity.

Armstrong et al. (2000) argue that poor self-esteem is a good predictor of Internet addictive behaviour. The question remains, however, as to whether low self-esteem leads to Internet addiction or, conversely, that it is in fact Internet addiction that leads to low self-esteem.

For the future success of these technologies as a learning tool, it is crucial to change the culture of the learning environment. Mechanisms need to be put in place to ensure that pedagogy underpins these technologies for learning.

We, as pioneers of these new technologies, need to adopt new ways of thinking and acting in order to educate those who will be using Web 2.0 technologies as learning tools.

The challenge facing society is that there is a lack of structure pertaining to the use of Web 2.0 technologies as well as policing in cyberspace, how can this be addressed?

Consideration has to be given to social behaviour on the Internet, there is a tendency to promulgate bad behaviour and misuse of these technologies, these issues will also be explored within the paper.

Web 2.0 technologies act as a communication portal, it is important to monitor how far these are used both morally and ethically and to the good of mankind.

It has been argued that people are wasting their lives and using these technologies with harmful results; we need to be aware and have consideration of the social involvement and the psychological well-being of people as a result of using these technologies.

We need to consider social responsibility and the time-engagement with these technologies and ensure that students able to separate learning/play time. In this new dynamic learning environment tutors need to prepare students for the on-line learning experience giving them support as learners and acting as facilitators in their virtual learning experience. The current challenge we face is that of identifying how far Web 2.0 technologies are used efficiently as pedagogical benefits.

It is crucial to have an understanding of the human, social and ethical implications, as well as the strategic and technical factors that are affected by the impact of these technologies. If we are to address these issues in the future, we need to look at social issues such as student isolation, addiction, motivation, satisfaction and inspiration. To be successful, technology has to lend itself to the human element to relate efficiently to the human psyche and philosophy.

Failure to address the issues raised in the exponential advance in Web technology could possibly lead to a lack of focus and worth in its use.

AUTHOR
Hendrik Opdebeeck

ABSTRACT

In spite of the many advantages of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) in an era of globalisation, crucial ethical questions raise about the impact of ICT on our living and working. In this paper, we intend to explore how one can prevent the flaws of dark sides of this ICT process from leading to ever-greater ethical decay. By ethical decay, we mean specifically the threat the ICT process poses to what is referred to as the longing for being and solidarity with the other(s). The current globalisation of living and working goes hand in hand with an ongoing revolution in ICT. We need to extrapolate to what these technological developments will lead if they are allowed to pursue an autonomous course.

Against this ethical background, in this paper the central role of ICT in current living and working issues is revealed by a hermeneutical approach of the well known myth of Orpheus and Eurydice¹. More concrete we focus on the first European opera on Orpheus and Eurydice, composed by Claudio Monteverdi and for the first time performed in Mantua in the beginning of the 17th. century. Four hundred years later on the same historical place, during this Ethicomp conference, we want to explain how the essence of Monteverdi’s Orfeo can also be discovered in the leading practical influence of technology on living and working nowadays. The theme of this myth and opera indeed is the power of technology, more concrete the power of the technological rationality behind music. This power can soothe all troubled hearts, and now with noble anger (thymos), now with love (epithymos), inflame the coldest minds. Indeed, as music is based on technical instruments (e.g. the lyre of Orfeo, the technique of the voice etc.), one can recognize in this metaphor the power of technology. By his lyre and his voice, Orpheus not only becomes the leader of heaven, hell and earth but also loses the ultimate meaning of his life and work, Eurydice. The (technique of) music of this first opera in history gives us the chance to be sensitive to the use or abuse of technology. The fact that in this paper we bring technology in connection with literature, music and ethics, is to situate within the Aristotelian tradition in the classification of philosophical subjects. Like M.Nussbaum in her also by Aristotle influenced Upheavals of Thought, we consider a series of poetic subjects, especially technology, aesthetics and poetics, besides theoretical and practical (e.g. ethics, politics and economics ) subjects.

When philosophers of technology often conclude that not technology but a misuse of technology leads to problems in living and working, it is precisely our argument that the ever more presence of technology in economics and society, makes it harder and harder to control ones desires in such a way, one does not prevent becoming the victim of technology. For man it is really hard to resist technology. To remain indifferent is not possible. It becomes apparent that a neutral or purely instrumental role of technology is not evident at all. Technology, in the myth of Orfeo, the technique of music, both affect man’s thymos (willpower, anger) and epithymos (desire, love). In his recent work Zorn und Zeit, Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, the German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk refers to these two fundamental forces, thymos and epitymos, which according to Plato, should be controlled by human reason as two horses behind a racing car. Together as a tripartite (tymos, epithymos and reason) they form the soul of man. The question that we engage in this paper is how the contemporary western society still has the reins in hands. To what extent increasingly driving forward the racing car, does not implicitly admit that the epithymos horse is so shaken up that it allows the car, another metaphor for technology, to become unmanageable.

It is noticeable that in his theory of virtues Plato introduces virtues such as prudence, justice, moderation, who have to bring order and harmony. Without these virtues, reason, in other words, is not capable to keep thymos and epithymos in balance. In the myth of Orpheus, the firmness of Orpheus’ thymos accessing the underworld is not feasible without the help of the virtue of hope. When as seen above, technology constantly develops on the basis of ever new needs created by the economy, in the long term the biggest danger is that society is no longer able to rely on technology as a solution to problems. This because society appears to succumb for the permanent overwhelming of her desires. If we really want to understand the impact of this power on live and working, a truly balance must be rediscovered between thymos and epithymos. For this, reintegrating virtues in the ICT context is essential. The importance of developing qualities like trust and responsibility, receptivity towards others, the ability to observe carefully and awareness of the importance of interpersonal relations, become apparent.

[1] In the myth of Orpheus one discovers a typical description of living and working in antiquity which essence remains very relevant to our times. On the occasion of his marriage Orpheus sings a hymn for Eurydice and in a Heideggerian pastoral landscape shepherds live, work and rejoice in song and dance. All this is shattered by the sudden entrance of the messenger Silvia whose tale slowly emerges. Eurydice has died from a snake-bite. Thanks to his famous music technique Orpheus resolves to recover from Hades. Speranza (Hope) leads Orpheus to the gates of Hades, where she must leave him, for inscribed on the rock at the entrance to Pluto’s kingdom are the words (from Dante): “Abandon all hope, ye that enter here”. Orpheus reaches the river Styx and encounters the boatman Caronte, who refuses to let him pass. Orpheus summons up all his musical singing technique. As Caronte remains unmoved, Orpheus changes tack, adopting a much simpler music technique. Eventually the boatman is lulled to sleep and Orpheus takes the oars. The chorus comments on the power of man to triumph over all obstacles, applying this technology. Pluto, king of the underworld has heard Orpheus’ lament and grants that Eurydice returns to earth, with the condition that Orpheus leads her without looking back. But as he moves earthwards, he has doubts and turns to see, only to find her disappearing before his eyes. Orpheus returns to earth alone and the final chorus comments on the paradox of a man who can conquer Hades with his technique, but not emotions.

AUTHOR
Mario Arias-Oliva, Alvaro Fuente,Teresa Torres-Coronas and
Mar Souto-Romero

ABSTRACT

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been an integral element in the growth of diverse forms of open, online and distance education, which over the last 40 years, have brought new opportunities for lifelong learning in many countries (Thorpe, 2005). The UNESCO World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action (UNESCO, 1998) in its article 12 reflects the potential challenge of technology. Higher education institutions should discover the advantages and potential of new information and communication technologies, ensuring quality and maintaining high standards for education practices and outcomes in a spirit of openness, equity and international co-operation. The UNESCO declaration (1998) shows as well the need to create new learning environments, ranging from distance education facilities to complete virtual higher education institutions and systems, capable of bridging distances and developing high-quality systems of education.

In the XXI century just accessing to Internet is not enough to ensure quality in higher education. Universities are making important investments in ICT infrastructures as a keystone in their learning and teaching strategies. As a consequence of ICT dependence, trends in ICT are affecting in higher education institutions.

During the last years the IT infrastructure in business is shifting to an ASP based service. Delivering “Software as a Service” (Saas) was not reliable enough in the 90’s (Dubey, Wagle; 2007). But nowadays, quality of online software and reliability meets business requirements. According to IDC by 2009 almost 10% of the market for business applications will migrate to a full software service model (IDC, 2005). Instead of buying and maintaining hardware and software, enterprises move to a more flexible environment focusing on core competencies. There are several reasons to move from “traditional in-house applications” to “software as a service”, such us more frequent updates, higher level of services and lower cost. Mizoras (2003) shows that the main reason to move towards a “Software as a Service” strategy is to reduce IT costs. The study points out this reason as the first one: 46% of CIO changes to SaaS to reduce IT cost.

Within this new ASP environment, Higher Education Institutions must take all advantages of software as a service. Our research focuses on the development of online applications in universities. Two main categories can be found, depending on the availability of resources in higher education institutions:

• Institutions with resources: universities with enough resources can improve their efficiency integrating new applications based on ASP technology and increase user satisfaction and services easily. We can justify the shift towards software as a service mainly with same reasons than in any other sector.
• Institutions without resources: universities without resources can access infrastructures with a very reasonable cost that, otherwise, they could not afford. The UNESCO declaration cited above (UNESCO, 1998) includes this access to ICT as an important factor to take into account. In the integration of ICT for educational purposes, particular attention should be paid to removing the grave inequalities which exist among countries and institutions with quite different resources availability. “SaaS” applications can be a powerful tool to let many institutions access critical expensive applications.

A Google Apps is a “first mover” in new software as a service market for email and other related services. Enterprises as Capgemini, a provider of consulting, technology and outsourcing services, announced services supporting the adoption of Google Apps Premier Edition by large-scale enterprises (Wireless News, 2007). Google Apps have specific services for the educational sector. Any university, instead of setting up and maintaining an expensive IT infrastructure for email, online editing systems, calendar or instant messenger application, could use Google Apps services (Google Apps, 2008). No IT infrastructure is required, and just with an Internet access, students with same password and username can:

• Work on the same document, spreadsheet or presentation (instead of emailing changes in multiple copies of the same attachment)
• Publish documents and calendars for the team to view and update
• Access information from any computer, even mobile phones

Several universities worldwide are using Google Apps Education Edition on their campus (Rosi, 2007). These Universities provide students and staff with customised Google e-mail accounts (Gmail) and other related services.

Our paper focus is on the potential impacts that Google Apps (as an example of SaaS) could have on universities. We will analyze the case of a Chile University that is moving to this new ASP environment. We will analyze the quality, reliability, security or privacy and other critical aspects of these new services. We analyze as well the opportunities that SaaS represents for institutions in less development countries.

REFERENCES

Dubey A., Wagle D. (2007): “Delivering software as a service”, The McKinsey Quarterly, May 2007, p. 1-12.

Google Apps (2008): Web with information about Google Apps, online at http://www.google.com/a/, accessed 01.02.2008.

IDC (2005): Worldwide and U.S. Software as a Service 2005-2009 Forecast and Analysis: Adoption for the Alternative Delivery Model Continues. Market Research Report Publication, Mar 01, 2005.

Mizoras Konary, A. (2003): Competitive analysis: Worldwide Software as a Service 2003 Vendor Shares: SaaS and Enterprise ASP Competitive Analysis, IDC OPINION online at http://www.oracle.com/ondemand/collateral/idc_ww_saas_2003_vendor_shares.pdf , accessed 01.02.2008.

Rossi S. (2007): Macquarie University rolls out Google apps, Computerworld (Australia), 13th September 2007, IDG Communications Pty Ltd.

Thorpe M. (2005): The impact of ICT on lifelong learning, in McIntosh C., Varoglu Z. Perspectives on distance education: Lifelong Learning & Distance Higher Education, pp. 23-32, Commonwealth of Learning / UNESCO Publishing.

UNESCO (1998): World Declaration on Higher Education: Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action, Paris, 5-9 October 1998.

Wireless News (2007): Capgemini to Deliver Google Apps Via SaaS to Enterprise Clients, 12th September 2007, M2 Communications, Ltd.

AUTHOR
Cajetan Okechukwu Ndukwe

ABSTRACT

Introduction

It can be argued that ethical values are embedded in health care practice and tradition following from the Hippocratic Oath. This has resulted among other things in a synthesis between ethics and health care practice and the application of philosophical ethics in health care. It is this applied philosophical ethics in health care that paves my way into an ethical assessment of self-testing devices of HIV. As someone coming from a philosophy background, I am interested in how critical thinking and evaluative reflection can help those engaged in health care service especially when dealing with issues that pose ethical quandaries.

From studying applied ethics, it has come to my attention that at the core of contemporary ethical concerns in health care is issues related to HIV and AIDS. While this essay might not be focusing on all the ethical issues concerning HIV and AIDS, my focal point will be ethical issues in the use of lab-on-a-chip self-testing devices of HIV. But what is lab-on-a-chip?

Lab-on-a-chip

Lab-on-a-chip is used to refer to devices that integrate multiple laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimetres to a few square centimetres in size. They are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than pico liters.Lab-on-a-chip technology is being used today to develop HIV self-testing devices.

Self-Testing Devices

These are devices that are used in point of care application and self-test home. These devices can diagnose a health condition like the case of the home pregnancy test kit. They can monitor health conditions and offer information on the possibility of adjusting treatment. An example of this is glucose testing to monitor blood sugar levels in diabetes patients. Individuals might also use self-testing devices to screen for an illness or health condition as in the measurement of cholesterol or triglyceride levels. From the reading that individuals get, they might make decisions to help curtail their risk of heart disease. The self-testing devices take various forms but I am interested on lab-on-a-chip self-testing devices of HIV.

Statement of the problem

Self-testing devices of HIV generates both excitement and uneasiness. On the one hand, self-testing devices of HIV allows earlier detection of HIV which makes people to seek treatment on time if available. In this way they lead to earlier and more effective treatment for HIV. But the use of self-testing devices of HIV generates ethical questions. The self-testing devices of HIV are inexpensive and could easily be adapted and made available for point of care testing and for home use. What is the justification of putting such devices in the hands of the public when there is no cure for HIV? How competent are persons who will use these devices? How reliable will the test be given that persons might not read or interpret the readings of the devices accurately? Even when they can do this, have they access to pre and post counselling in case they are HIV positive? Furthermore, can they access the antiretroviral drugs if they are available?

Arguments are put forward that the provision of such self-testing devices of HIV will promote individuals’ autonomy. This assumes that individuals will use and interpret the HIV self-testing devices properly. The information they gain would hopefully lead to decisions that promote their health. However, health care professionals have traditionally been essential participants in HIV testing to insure accurate results and support for HIV sero-positive individuals. Might persons actually be harmed by HIV self-testing devices if they use or interpreted inaccurately? How will the ethical principles of beneficence and non-maleficence be weighed with the HIV self-testing devices?

In addition, the act of self-testing produces information which will impact users’ of self-testing devices, perceptions of themselves and their reality. Hence self-testing can be viewed as an ontological event. Such information carries implications for the person and how they should act (such as whether they should seek treatment, if available).Therefore, the act of self-testing for HIV carries great significance for the person. How people interpret this experience and its meaning is a great ethical concern for me in this essay. Would it be ethical to leave persons on their own during this process, as would be most likely with self-testing devices of HIV? I explore these ethical concerns in this essay.

Purpose of the study

This essay is aimed at establishing ways of resolving the ethical concerns that arise in the use of self-testing devices of HIV. By investigating the problems and risks inherent in the use of self-testing devices of HIV, I intend to educate health care workers and individuals generally of their responsibilities in the use of self-testing devices of HIV.

In addition, this essay is an invitation for more research regarding ethical issues on the use of self-testing devices of HIV in health care. I will offer some suggestions regarding what research in applied ethics can do in resolving problematic ethical issues bothering on the use of self-testing devices of HIV in health care. I intend to do this via some analytical questions as my research guide.

Research questions

I am to examine three inter-related general questions in this essay. They are;

• What are the ethical issues implicated in the introduction and use of self-testing devices of HIV in health care?
• How do we analyse these ethical issues in relation to the demands of the ideals of health care practice?
• What implications do the use of self-testing devices of HIV hold for the ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence and non-maleficence?

I am to do an extensive analysis of the ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence and non-maleficence which will enable me to answer the core moral questions of this research.

Methodology

The research methodology is that of careful and critical analysis of available and relevant scholarly literature towards proffering solutions to the ethical concerns in the use of HIV self-testing devices.