AUTHOR
Duncan Langford

ABSTRACT

When Press and public address the subject of the Internet, one issue in particular always seems relevant. Concern over the perceived ease with which pornography can be obtained electronically is a perennial favourite for discussion. The topic is seldom treated lightly; strong opinions are freely expressed. While some judgements may perhaps have been short on discussion and analysis, a principal assumption in any such debate invariably seems to be that the Internet is awash with easily viewed pornography. Such a state of affairs, once assumed, is then automatically viewed as a serious danger. Some sort of official action – in a wide variety of guises – must and should follow. However unworkable technically Internet censorship might be, this negative perception leads inevitably to the conclusion that the Internet must be censored and controlled. Our children – and ourselves? – must be protected from a growing tide of electronic filth.

While supporters of this perception are apparently legion, the actual incidence and nature of Internet pornography has largely been assumed, and the arguments against censorship conceded by default. However, while it would surely be accepted by most users of the Internet that sexual material is available, just how easily might such material be accessed, and how ‘pornographic’ might it actually be? Much of the most vocal criticism has certainly come from those with a political or religious agenda – a more neutral academic examination is perhaps appropriate.

A central question is whether the situation on the Internet today is really one of widespread and corrupting squalor, or is there, perhaps, an unfounded moral panic in public and political reactions to what is actually an essentially unproven risk? Is it really true that established decencies are under threat, or is this view perhaps inaccurate, or overstated?

This paper examines the general availability of sexual material on the Internet, and looks at possible responses to the management of such material. First discussing the background to provision of ‘inappropriate’ data, it moves to examine the technical basis for such provision. It assesses the availability of textual material from long-standing Usenet news groups, as well as the much more recent graphics, sounds and images accessible through the WorldWideWeb (WWW).

After analysis and discussion, it concludes that, while definitions of pornography may vary, widespread availability of such material is a reality on the Internet. Much text and graphic data which would be generally judged to be pornographic is indeed widely available. Whilst stressing that total elimination is not technically viable, the paper concludes by assessing methods by which access to electronic data considered ‘unacceptable’ might be restricted.

AUTHOR
Paul B. de Laat

ABSTRACT

Patenting of software-related inventions is on the increase, especially in the US. Mathematical formulas and algorithms, though, are still sacrosanct. Only under special conditions may algorithms pass as statutory matter: if not solely a mathematical exercise, or linked with physical reality, or otherwise limited to specific uses. In this article it is argued that blank acceptance is to be preferred. On one condition only: formulas and algorithms should be protected including the proof that supports it. This argument is developed by conducting a thought-experiment. After analyzing the development of algebra from the 16th up to the 20th century (in particular , the solution to the cubic equation), we ask ourselves what the effects would have been on the development of mathematics as a science if a patent regime had been in force protecting some or all elements of (‘cubic’) algebra.

AUTHOR
Andrew Korac-Kakabadse and Nada Korac-Kakabadse

ABSTRACT

In the last fifteen years, there has been an growing interest in the subject of professional and business ethics. Organisations are becoming increasingly aware of the effects of (un)ethical practices on stakeholders (Adams et al, 1991). Public awareness of unethical business behaviour has sharpened, as the climate of deregulation and competition has shifted, impacting on the boundaries of accepted practice, with the media and investigative reporting surfacing many incidents. Public awareness has been facilitated by multi-media that rests on the advancements in information technologies (IT).

Furthermore, economies that are shifting from material growth towards added value in all its varied forms through information, ideas and intelligence, the “three I economy”, in health care, the arts and environment, leisure, travel, sport and service sectors, are increasingly becoming information intensive and at the same time IS/IT driven (Handy, 1995). Consequently these economies are increasingly dependent on the knowledge and services of IS/IT specialists. Although these IS/IT specialists are increasingly referred to in the literature as professionals, they operate as an occupation and at best can be seen as a para-specialists, without professional certification and codes of conduct.

This paper examines what constitutes profession, through an analysis of the pros and cons of a profession. The paper also explores the emerging need for IS/IT “professionals” and/or para-professionals to adopt codes of conduct. It is argued that sustained research output in this area is important in order to establish IS/IT ethics on en equal footing with other topics in applied ethics and the establishment of an ethical code of conduct for IS/IT “professionals”.

AUTHOR
Shalini Kesar and Simon Rogerson

ABSTRACT

“The advent of computer technology has brought many kinds of opportunities and some of these, not surprisingly, are of a criminal nature”. (Bainbridge 1993)

Various sources indicate that computer related misuse is increasing (for example, see Oz 1994, Forester and Morrison 1994). It has been argued that computer misuse can not only result in the destruction of main computer systems but also backup systems causing damages up to hundreds and thousands of dollars (Audit Commission 1994). The survey conducted by the UK Audit Commission in 1994 highlighted a number of trends in computer fraud and abuse that revealed an almost five-fold increase in reported virus infections; an almost eight-fold increase in the use of illicit software; and a four-fold increase in instances of unauthorised private work.

Illicit acts can result due to incompetence, ignorance, negligence in the use of IT or deliberate misappropriation by individuals. Further such acts can vary from simple acts to serious crimes. Irrespective of the nature of illicit acts, intentional acts such as fraud, virus infections, illicit software and sabotage have been dealt under the term ‘computer misuse’. However, in the literature the terms misuse and abuse have often been used inter-changeably. In this paper, computer misuse is defined as the occurrence of an intentional act, that is a deliberate misappropriation by which individual(s) intend to gain dishonest advantages through the use of the computer system(s). Misappropriation itself may be opportunist, pressured, or a single-minded calculated contrivance.

It has been argued by researchers and practitioners that reported cases of computer misuse only represents the ‘tip of the iceberg’. Therefore the complexity and invisibility of computer misuse which, along with other factors, that lead to many difficulties in measuring, detecting and prosecuting offences can not be underestimated. Consequently computer misuse is an issue of significant concern. This paper argues that in order to manage computer misuse, a greater understanding of its origins along with its effects is imperative. Further, it classifies various types of computer misuses and relates their increased incidence to the attitudes and social norms in play. Thus it argues that individual attitudes and social norms with respect to the illicit behaviour must be examined in context of with the personality factors, work situation, along with the opportunities that may exist within organisation.

In conducting the argument the paper takes the support of the theory of reasoned action as proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). The theory is used to interpret computer use and misuse issues in a large public sector organisation in India. The paper draws on the findings in the case study to identify some key ethical principles that organisations need to adopt in order to minimise misuse and abuse.

AUTHOR
Alastair Irons and Paul Kelly

ABSTRACT

The paper explores the profile of ethical issues within the professional computing community, particularly amongst systems developers. It explores why awareness of ethical issues in systems development is not high, with what implications for systems development and how attitudes might be changed and supported. To help address these issues collaboration was sought with several leading UK organisations. Their involvement in an ‘ethical workshop’ and follow-up in-house research was planned. After showing early enthusiasm, each partner organisation withdrew from the project. Whilst addressing the original issues, the paper also examines why organisations are reluctant to discuss and explore the ethical aspects of systems development, and suggests alternative techniques for encouraging their involvement in ethical research. Although the planned collaborative activity has been forestalled, the experience has demonstrated that methods for involving companies in constructive ethical debate require further research. There is much work to be done to convince organisations that they will benefit from a raising of ethical awareness within their system development environments.

AUTHOR
Lucas Introna and Nancy Pouloudi

ABSTRACT

Respect of privacy is one of the primary concerns for ethical computing. However, privacy is not a straightforward concept; it can be interpreted from many different perspectives. One reason for this is that privacy is a relational and a relative concept. Often, there is a thin line between the need to disclose information for the benefit of some individuals and the need to safeguard the privacy of some individuals by not disclosing this information.

In this paper we offer a systematic discussion of potentially different notions of privacy. To this end, we put forward a framework that explores the interrelations of interests and values for various stakeholders where privacy concerns have risen or are expected to rise. We argue that conflicts between the interests and values of an individual as well as conflicts of interest and values between different stakeholders may result in different perceptions of privacy.

Part of this analysis is based on different elements of stakeholder theory, namely the descriptive, instrumental and normative elements. These elements can facilitate a more comprehensive view of the stakeholders that may affect or be affected by a certain attitude to privacy. In particular they highlight who the stakeholders are and what their perspectives concerning privacy issues are (descriptive element), what interests underlie these perspectives (instrumental element) and what values affect their attitudes (normative element).

The information age makes it particularly important to explore the perspectives of privacy as well as the interests and values of stakeholders. Indeed, the possibility to speed up information exchange and to aggregate information items may substantially alter what were previously understood as privacy interests; it may also generate new such interests. Moreover, there is an element of power associated with the interests and values of stakeholders. Certain stakeholders are in a better place to serve their interests and satisfy their internal values than others. This asymmetry of power may raise risks for the privacy of the weaker stakeholders.

The information systems literature provides ample evidence of the broad implications that the use of information technology can have on power and also on how power can affect the use of information technology. As a result, information systems may change the context of stakeholder relations and pose a systematic threat to privacy. The paper uses examples from the healthcare context to illustrate how this may occur in practice and how the theoretical framework can help in understanding the phenomenon and preventing inappropriate judgements in the context of privacy conflicts.

In conclusion, the paper makes a theoretical as well as a practical contribution; it uses different elements of stakeholder theory to explore the notion of privacy. This offers a dynamic framework within which appropriate measures to safeguard privacy can be set. We conclude that appropriate levels of privacy can only be defined taking into account the specific context and the information systems within that context.