AUTHOR
Gonçalo Jorge Morais da Costa, Nuno Sotero Alves da Silva and Piotr Pawlak

ABSTRACT

During ETHICOMP 2008 the authors have proven that tourists’ locational privacy is a myth (Costa, Silva & Pawlak, 2008)! Hence, the aim of this manuscript is to shed some light over the lack of control of locational privacy, what is a desirable state of such, and a conceptual framework that allow citizens and governments to achieve a desirable condition.

Despite literature claim that a key feature of Web 2.0 is the ability of users to control their personal information O’Reilly (2005) through multiple applications (e.g. Norrie, 2008), the truth is that empirical evidences clearly demonstrate continuous violations to personal privacy (Brandimarte, Acquisti & Loewenstein, 2010) since informational existentialism reshapes Heidegger‘s concept of appropriation (being and time) (Costa & Silva, 2010). Considering that Web 2.0 applications are omnipresent in several recent technologies, as for instance iPad, iPhone, smartphones mobile phones, etc. it is feasible to claim that locational privacy is also at steak (e.g. Hill, 2011). Although is vital to address the concept of locational privacy, as well as its evolution.

According to Blumberg & Chase (2007) locational privacy is the ability of an individual to move in public space with the reasonable expectation that their location will not be systematically and secretly recorded for later use. Or, concerns the utilization of information with reference to an individual’s current location to grant additional relevant information and services to that individual, being a specific type of context-awareness (Duckham & Kulik, 2006). Bearing in mind again the complex interaction among global and local systems (stakeholders, technologies and regulations) emerges glocal privacy (Costa, Silva & Pawlak, 2008), which is consistent with Meyrowitz (2005) argument.

Eric Gordon (2009) claims that local information access is no longer restricted to the geographic location, due to the network configuration or distributed fluxes of information in spite of the undefeatable cultural barriers that glocality imposes; so, a desirable state of locational privacy must cluster peoples’ sharing willingness into categories (Olson, Grudin & Horvitz, 2005) even at a political level (Bellier & Wilson, 2000). The question is extremely difficult to answer unequivocally, because the ratio between center and locality is differently understood over the nations (Bomberg, Peterson & Stubb, 2008). However certain common values can be observed, accepted by most of societies, setting out a framework of privacy for both individuals and local communities.

In order to present a conceptual framework the authors will first draw their attention to the work of Pedersen (1999). Pedersen presents a consolidated model for the attainment of five privacy needs for each of the six types of privacy (figure 1).

Figure 1. Diagram of the types of privacy by privacy functions

The five privacy functions were autonomy, confiding, rejuvenation, contemplation, and creativity. In accordance with the model the users’ profiles describe six types of privacy (solitude, reserve, isolation, intimacy with family, anonymity, intimacy with friends). Both dimensions of the matrix will be under scrutiny into the light of web 2.0 applications and locational privacy as a way to develop a novel conceptual framework.

REFERENCES

Bellier I., & Wilson T. M. (2000). An anthropology of the European Union: Building, imagining and experiencing the new Europe. Oxford: Berg Publishers.

Blumberg, A., & Chase, (2007). Electronic tolling and locational privacy: How to make ez-pass preserve locational privacy. Online at http://math.stanford.edu/~blumberg/traffic/secureEZ.pdf (accessed 02 February 2011).

Bomberg E., Peterson J., & Stubb A. (2008). The European Union: How does it work. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Brandimarte, L., Acquisti, A., & Loewenstein, G. (2010, June). Misplaced confidences: Privacy and the control paradox. Paper presented at the Ninth Annual Workshop on the Economics of Information Security, Cambridge, MA.

Costa, G. J. M., & Silva, N. S. A. (2010). Informational existentialism! Will information ethics shape our cultures, International Review of Information Ethics, 13, 33-41.

Costa, G. J. M., Silva, N. S. A., & Pawlak, Piotr (2010). Network tourism: a fallacy of location privacy! In M. Arias-Oliva et al. (Eds.), ETHICOMP 2010 (pp. 93-102). Tarragona. Spain.

Duckham, M., & Kulik, L. (2006). Location privacy and location-aware computing. In J. Drummond et al. (Eds.), Dynamic & Mobile GIS: Investigating Change in Space and Time (pp. 34-51). Boca Rator, FL: CRC Press.

Gordon, E. (2009). Redefining the local: The distinction between located information and local knowledge in location-based games. In A. S. Silva & D. M. Sutko (Eds.), Digital Cityscapes: Merging Digital and Urban Playspaces (pp. 21-36). New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.

Hill, K. (2011). Why your cell phone is more private in Ohio than in California. Online at http://blogs.forbes.com/kashmirhill/2011/01/04/why-your-cell-phone-is-more-private-in-ohio-than-in-california/ (accessed 04 February 2011).

Meyrowitz, J. (2005). The rise of glocality: New sense of place and identity in the global village. In K. Nyíri (Ed.), A Sense of Place: The Global and the Local in Mobile Communication (pp. 21-30). Vienna: Passagen Verlag.

Norrie, M. C. (2008). PIM meets web 2.0, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 5231, 15-25.

O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is web 2.0- Design patterns and business models for the next generation of software. Online at http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html (accessed 04 February 2011).

Olson, J., Grudin, J., & Horvitz, E. (2005). Toward understanding preferences for sharing and privacy. In G. Veer & C. Gale (Eds.), Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1985-1988). Portland, OR: ACM.

Pedersen, D. M. (1999). Model for types of privacy by privacy functions, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 19(4), 397-405.

AUTHOR
Gonçalo Jorge Morais da Costa , Piotr Pawlak and Nuno Sotero Alves da Silva

ABSTRACT

A computer game is essentially a game activated by a computer, in which gamers control the items visible on the screen just for fun (Feibel, 2006). Is important to identify the unlike games philology, because computer games can be differentiated through several features, as for instance: scenarios, game mechanisms or groups of recipients (gamers) (Kücklich, 2003), existing technologies that allow playing (Filiciak, 2006), or even their bond with cultural and social elements (Jenkins, 2006).

Several computer game creators are legendary for their boldness and it frequently occurs that their products stir up debates, leading to the censorship of their content since these encourage racism, drug abuse, violence, cruelty, rape, mayhem, as Grand Theft Auto exhibits (Kutner & Olson, 2008). Thus, many computer games verge on being unethical or even illegitimate. The judiciary systems in US or Japan ruled on abundant cases of moral ambiguities, because interest groups seek to introduce special acts of law, which would govern computer game market (Jenkins, 2006).

Is among these ambiguities that literature has been approaching the psychological and social outcomes of playing violent games (Sanford & Madill, 2007), namely mayhem engagement (emotional connotation to violence) (Gotterbarn, 2010) and cognitive bias (effect upon social attitudes and decision making) (Kirsh et al., 2005). However, studies acknowledge paradoxical results (e.g. Durkin & Barber, 2002) regarding computers games addiction (Cover, 2006). Yet, a gigantic gap of research remains when the intent is to analyse if violent computer games negatively persuade gamers’ moral intensity and sensitivity, despite the vast work concerning moral development (Reynolds & Ceranic, 2009), or even moral competence (Podolskiy, 2008).

Following Jones (1991), moral intensity is the extent of issue-related moral imperative in a situation, and moral sensitivity is the individual cognitive process; and, moral competence is “the capacity to make decisions and judgments which are moral (i.e., based on internal principles) and to act in accordance with such judgments” (Kohlberg, 1964, pp. 425).

This manuscript endeavours to comprehend if violent computer games persuade negatively gamers’ moral intensity and sensitivity through mayhem engagement and cognitive bias. For that, the authors will reproduce at some extent the work of Schonlau, Fricker & Eliott (2001): questionnaire enabled in September and October 2010 in two geographical locations, Portugal and Poland.

Although, the authors will shed some light over the questionnaire sections and their questions:

• section 1- aims to understand the participant profile, namely its gender, age, number of gaming years, daily hours of gaming, what computer games categories plays, and if it plays violent games and how many hours (daily);
• section 2- intends to understand what is considered a violent game through the analysis of their characteristics, which are considered violent (list choice), if agrees with the present legislation concerning age categories for playing violent games;
• section 3- resumes violent game scenarios versus real life contexts in order to understand if the respondent sustains its moral decision. For that, the respondent has to order his moral decisions from 1 (immediate) to 6 (final decision) in both settings for extreme situations, as well as to justify their position through asks for agreement queries.

The numerical (multiple choice) and content analysis (ask for agreement queries) (Creswell, 2003) will promote a consistent retort about the latent relationship between violent computer games and gamers’ moral intensity and sensitivity, as well as a comparison among both countries. The first empirical results underline that:

1. Polish are less influenced in their decision making process, because in section 3 most of them has criticized the chosen scenarios contrarily to Portuguese respondents;
2. Polish respondents choice about the list of games that might be considered violent is much broader.

Although, a sophisticated analysis (numerical and content) will be presented throughout ETHICOMP 2011.

REFERENCES

Cover, R. (2006). Gaming (ad)diction: Discourse identity, time and play in the production of the gamer addiction myth, Game Studies- The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 6(1), Online at http://gamestudies.org/0601/articles/cover (accessed 12 January 2011).

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Durkin, K., & Barber, B. (2002). Not so doomed: Computer game play and positive adolescent development, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 23(4), 373-392. Esposito, N. (2005). A short and simple definition of what a videogame is. In Z. K. McKeon & W. G. Swenson (Eds.). Proceedings of DiGRA 2005 Conference, Online at http://www.digra.org/dl/db/06278.37547.pdf (accessed 10 January 2011).

Feibel, T. (2006). Zabójca w dziecinnym pokoju. Przemoc i gry komputerowe. Warszawa: Broszurowa.

Filiciak M. (2006). Wirtualny plac zabaw. Gry sieciowe i przemiany kultury wspó?czesnej. Warszawa: Broszurowa.

Gotterbarn, D. (2008). The ethics of video games: Mayhem, death, and the training of the next generation. In T. W. Bynum et al. (Eds.), ETHICOMP 2008: Living, Working and Learning Beyond Technology (pp. 322-333). Mantua: University of Pavia.

Jenkins H. (2006). Convergence culture. Where old and new media collide. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Jones, T. M. (1991). Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model, Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 366-395.

Kirsh, S. J. (2005). Violent video games induce an affect processing bias. Media Psychology, 7(3), 239-250.

AUTHOR
Gonçalo Jorge Morais da Costa, Mary Prior and Simon Rogerson

ABSTRACT

Before unlock the guiding research issue for this manuscript the authors reveal their stimulus:

• The research project, PhD, of the first author about why link knowledge management, organisational culture and ethics, which has been presented into previous ETHICOMP conferences (e.g. Costa, Prior & Rogerson, 2010);
• And, organisational theory future developments (authors personal view) despite potential criticism and comments from scholars and practitioners, since debate is crucial.

As a result, this contribution outlines the concept of noetic organisations! However, is vital to address what key domains will structure the authors’ argument:

• 21st century managing requirements;
• Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom (DIKW) hierarchy;
• Learning organisations;
• Organisational theory future developments (wise organisations and noetic organisations).

21st century managing requirements induce a collaborative approach in order to exploit unlike workers insights, instead of the traditional authoritarian, command and control attitude. People are a “natural” resource and an organisational asset to sponsor sustainable competitive advantage. Hence, the new managing orientation is also assuming innovation as a key ingredient for success and competitiveness (Liyanage & Poon, 2002). This entails increasing the innovative potential of the organisation by fostering novel ideas, harnessing people’s creativity and enthusiasm, tapping the innovative potential of workers, and supporting the dissemination of autonomy and entrepreneurship (Black & Porter, 2000).

DIKW hierarchy or continuum process has been widely approach in literature; although, until recently the attention devoted to knowledge was minor, and even less to wisdom (Small, 2004). Data are facts and messages observed by an individual or group, which may be considered elements of larger physical systems (Choo, 2005). Nonaka (1994) perceives information as a flow of messages, so schemas and mental models of the actor influence what meanings are constructed.

Knowledge is a result or product of knowing, information or understanding acquired through experience, practical ability or skill, and cognition (Oxford English Dictionary, 2008). Costa (1995, pp. 3) defines wisdom as a

“combination of knowledge and experience, but it is more than just the sum of these parts. Wisdom involves the mind and the heart, logic and intuition, left brain and right brain, but it is more than either reason, or creativity, or both. Wisdom involves a sense of balance, an equilibrium derived from a strong, pervasive moral conviction (…) the conviction and guidance provided by the obligations that flow from a profound sense of interdependence”.

Therefore is difficult to conceptualise and operationalise it, as the ongoing debate throughout Eastern and Western history demonstrates (Rowley, 2006). Given the purpose of this contribution the authors will devote their attention to knowledge and wisdom levels and their influence over organisational theory.

Since the expression “learning organisation” was referred by Senge et al. (1994), explanations have prospered in management literature. Yet, literature comprises a lack of accurateness about the concept itself. Ortenbald (2002) denotes that just a few authors have attempted to produce groups of learning organisations. Ortenblad also refers that a learning organisation encompasses four ontological dimensions: cultural values, leaders, communication, and knowledge workers. This complex relationship among the four dimensions involves a considerable amount of ethical issues and social challenges (Costa, 2011).

Learning organisations will become wisdom organisations due to the confrontation between neo-liberal tendencies and internal and external moral practices, so:

wise organisation must create time for the virtues that allow wise, practical judgements to be made. An organisation has a temporality where it remembers the past, accepts responsibility for it and uses that to devise a new space for itself in the future whilst acting now (Rowley & Gibbs, 2008, pp. 364).

These authors even argue that practically wise organisations seek to extend the following processes: understanding dynamic complexity; developing personal wisdom competency; deliberating towards ethical models; refreshing shared sustainable vision; group wisdom dynamics; deliberated praxis; and embodied learning.

Even so, is the authors’ go beyond Rowley & Gibbs (2008) outlook and to discuss the characteristics of noetic organisations. Considering that noetic research investigates the nature and potentials of consciousness as a way to understand the relationship between consciousness, soul and spirit; and, how they relate with the physical world (Noetic Science, 2011), it seems possible that these discoveries will influence organisational theory evolution because they may improve the development of personal wisdom.

REFERENCES

Black, S. J., & Porter, L. W. (2000). Management: Meeting new challenges. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.

Choo, C. W. (2005). The knowing organization: How organizations use information to construct meaning, create knowledge and make decisions. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Costa, G. J. M. (2011). Ethical evaluation of learning organizations: A conceptual framework. In G. J. M. Costa (Ed.), Handbook of Ethical and Social Issues in Knowledge Management: Organizational Innovation (pp. 250-277). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

AUTHOR
Richard Cozzens

ABSTRACT

In 2008, I presented a paper at ETHICOMP titled “Feasibility of Web-Based Training.” The paper was based on research I conducted as the CATIA V5 Workbook * (Cozzens 2000) was first published and released. Data collection continued as I developed a web-based training site CATIA V5 Workbook.com in 2003 **. Until about 2006, the number of customers purchasing the book and using the web-based training increased. Throughout the world over 150 colleges and universities utilized the book for their CAD (Computer Aided Design) course curriculum. The web-based training site had about 1,500 users. The research conducted indicated that web-based CAD training was a feasible method of training given the training had the right components.

In 2010, I presented a paper at ETHICOMP titled “Quality Web-Based CAD Training.” The paper was a continuation of the 2008 paper. In the paper, I reviewed the history of the development of the market for CAD web-based training, discussed the market decline, and finally looked at the continuing need and benefit for this specific type of quality web-based training. In the paper, it was mentioned that web-based CAD training would never completely replace face-to-face training. With advanced web-based curriculum and technology, it had become a viable substitute for traditional training.

It is clear that technology is changing the way web-based training in general is managed and accessed. An example, a recent article in Time Magazine (2010) Philip Rosedale stated “Anything that can be made and recorded becomes essentially free.” Anita Hamilton in another Time Magazine article stated, “What’s certain is that the $4 billion college text book market is ripe for a digital makeover.” The market is changing and will continue to change.

Interestingly, I attended a conference recently “Solid Works World 2011” in San Antonio, Texas.”*** A conference like this usually has at least four to five web-based CAD training vendors. This year there was only one web-based CAD training vendor “SolidProfessor.” There are two main reasons for this decline in market share. The first is a mature and shrinking market. The second reason is what I refer to as the phenomena of CAD training using social media platforms such YouTube, podcasting, and blogs. Training on YouTube is essentially free and the quality is getting better as the content grows. Web-based CAD training is also being accepted as a viable method of training. At the “SolidWorks World 2011” conference, I had the opportunity to attend several training sessions. In those training sessions, references to YouTube Channels, podcasts, and blogs were listed as external references and/or additional training for the specific SolidWorks tool being presented in the session. January 2011, I attended a UACTE (Utah Association for Career and Technical Education) Conference. At this conference, the training for all the state CAD instructors included how to access and use free web-based training material. All the instructors were eager to view and sample the training. Most of the instructors were eager to implement the training into their class rooms.

Keeping this in mind, in this paper I describe changes implemented in my web-based CAD training used at a university level for students. I have also implemented these changes into the training outside of the university such as the SolidWorks training I conducted at ITSON (Insituto technologico De Sonora) in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico last May. I am implementing these changes into my YouTube and eLearning (blackboard) accounts as well. This paper takes into account the results of the on-going research and also current trends in CAD training market. During this training, students have access to social media platforms such as YouTube which includes tools and techniques (see figure below for details). During the semester, students will be interviewed and will also be requested to give a feedback on the usefulness of this training. This paper uses Double Loop Learning by Aygris to best describe the different phases of this on-going research. This will help to provide an insight into web-based training in general by reevaluating the underlying assumptions (as stated in the theory) from the results of the on-going research in web based CAD training.

The contribution of this paper is to better understand the effectiveness and feasibility of web-based CAD training using various social media platforms such as YouTube, podcasting, and blogs.

REFERENCES

Cozzens, R. “Effectiveness of Web-based Training.” Proceedings of ETHICOMP 2008, Pavia Matua, Italy.

Cozzens, R. “Quality Web-Based CAD Training.” Proceedings of ETHICOMP 2010, Tarragona, Spain.

Rosedale, P., “The Future of Content,” Time Magazine, November 11, 2010.

Hamilton, A., “Global Business,” Time Magazine, November 11, 2010.

Batista, Ed, 2006. “Double-Loop Learning and Executive Coaching” online at http://www.edbatista.com/2006/12/doubleloop_lear.html, accessed 01.23.2011.

AUTHOR
Karolina Churska-Nowak and Piotr Pawlak

ABSTRACT

Nowadays, more and more spreading the thesis according to which the proper functioning of modern democracy is dependent on the same processes and phenomena that we observe on the open market. Representatives of political science, in particular specialists in the field of political marketing, highlight the numerous similarities between the sphere of politics (in a democratic political culture, the type involved) and the market economy (among them: B. I. Newman, P. Kotler, N. Kotler, A. Lock, P. Harris). Leaving aside the debate about justifiably of that thesis, we must agree with the fact, that political marketing is a constant element of present political life. One can argue about the origins of this phenomenon, seeing some signs of political marketing in some behaviors of the rulers or leaders since ancient times (eg, use of the phenomenon of solar eclipse), but according to most scholars, we can talk about political marketing with real player, only in terms of the democratic system (Cwalina, Falkowski, 2006). Bruce I Newman said in the late 90’s, that politics enters into the ‘age of fabricating the images’ (Newman, 1999). Thus, the modern political marketing is primarily a multi-dimensional use of mass media in order to create the desired (by the candidate and his election team), the image of the candidate and his fixation in the minds of recipients (readers, viewers, listeners and Internet users).

Political marketing in the XXI century is characterized by a marked shift of activities – from forcing ideological (even less popular) election slogans expressing the rigid belief of the party, to act more flexible, taking into account the particular needs and moods of society. Under this concept, the role of political marketing is going out to meet social expectations. An obvious prerequisite for an effective political marketing campaign are media. This is a permanent feature of contemporary political struggle, which plays an important role in the mechanisms of power. John Thompson (Thompson, 1994) places the media in one of the four, identified by their forms of governance. He extracts the economic power, political, based on coercion and symbolic. Economic power is organized within firms and corporations, whose main objective is to achieve financial gain and production. Political power is associated with nation-states, with clearly defined borders and centralized administration. Authority based on coercion takes the form of military and paramilitary forces, combined with the structures of the state. The symbolic power in the ability to use symbolic forms, generally understood as an expression, which transfers information and symbolic content, in order to intervene and influence the course of actions and events (Cwalina, Falkowski, 2006). In this sense the forms of power, the media are mainly part of the latter. Most of the mass media has been quite extensively studied and described in terms of their suitability for operations as marketing (both in the wider understood economy, and politics). Internet, which as a mass medium in full, we can talk about since the early 90’s (Castells, 2003), also has not gone unnoticed for analysts who examine political marketing. However, given the special nature of this medium, ‘the power of communication’ of the Internet is expressed primarily by it’s network services. The most common network services is of course the World Wide Web, in which there are constantly appeared new proposals. In recent years, more and more popular became various social networking sites. This is a relatively young medium, most recently also used for various marketing purposes.

Nowadays, political marketing more often became present in the cyberspace. The use of Internet as advertising platform is something different than traditional media marketing. Relative to TV, radio or posters, it’s much more cheaper – expressed in the size of consumers audience. Marketing specialists can reach larger number of consumers, spending less money than in the other kinds of promotion. Social networks are specific carrier of advertising, which is now universally used by the politicians in their campaigns. But using of social networks for closely advertise purposes is connected with various ethical dilemmas. Main aim of paper is to describe benefits of the use of social networks in political marketing, as well as to consider the moral and ethic side of that phenomenon. The case study here will be Facebook and ‘NK’, and their use in the local governments elections in Poland (21 November 2010). The aim of paper is to specify fluid border between public (political) and personal sphere of human activity in the cyberspace. If this border is possible to set up? The problem of social network in political life is connected with the political blog’s phenomenon, it will be another matter that we want to bring up.

REFERENCES

Bomberg E., Peterson J., Stubb A. (2008), The European Union: How Does it Work, New York.

Castells M., (2003), The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society, Oxford University Press.

Cwalina W., Falkowski A. (2006), Marketing Polityczny. Perspektywa Psychologiczna, Gdansk.

Dahl R. A. (2000), O demokracji, Kraków.

Dobek-Ostrowska B. [red.] (2007), Media masowe na ?wiecie. Modele systemów medialnych i ich dynamika rozwojowa, Wroc?aw.

Dobek-Ostrowska B. [red.] (2002), Transformacja systemów medialnych w krajach Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej po 1989 roku, Wroc?aw.

Hallin D., Mancini P. (2007), Systemy medialne. Trzy modele mediów i polityki w uj?ciu porównawczym, Kraków.

Lees-Marshment J. (2009), Political Marketing: Principles and Applications, Routledge.

Miko?ajczak A., Mausch H. [red.] (2005), The EU enlargement: a chance for all, Gniezno.

Moran M., (1987), The politics of banking, London.

Newman B. I., (1999), The mass marketing of politics: Democracy in an age of manufactured images, Thousands Oaks.

O’Cass, A. (2001), Political Marketing, [in:] “European Journal of Marketing”, Vol. 35, N. 9/10, pp. 1003-1025.

Thompson J.B., (1994), Social theory and the media, [w:] Crowley D., Mitchell D. [ed.], “Communication theory today” (pp. 27 – 49), Cambridge.

AUTHOR
Nathaniel Adam Tobias Coleman

ABSTRACT

Sexual racism is a form of social segregation on the basis of race. Like all forms of social segregation, sexual racism has two faces: that of exclusion (= spacial segregation) and that of exploitation (= role segregation). On the one hand, sexual racism is manifested in the race-based denial of sexual affirmation or activity; on the other, sexual racism is manifested in the offer of sexual affirmation or activity, but only on racially subordinating terms.

Since the social scientific analysis of data from websites that facilitate searches for sexual partners, has concluded that black heterosexual women and black homosexual men who identify as bottom are the least sought-after online, I focus on the sexual racism that perpetrated against members of these two social groups and on the distinctive moral wrongs committed and the distinctive moral harms that obtain, precisely because this sexual racism is perpetrated online.

When perpetrated against black heterosexual women, online sexual racism has the following content. On the one hand, it is manifested (a) in white heterosexual men’s reluctance to affirm black heterosexual women’s sexual appeal and (b) in white heterosexual men’s reluctance to engage in sexual activity with black heterosexual women. On the other hand, it is manifested (a) in white heterosexual men’s eagerness to affirm the sexual appeal only of black heterosexual women who have phenotypically whiter traits (in addition to their phenotypically blacker traits), and (b) in white heterosexual men’s eagerness to engage in sexual activity only covertly and only with hypersexualised, hyperaccessible, and superdisposible black heterosexual women.

When perpetrated against black homosexual men, online sexual racism has the following content. On the one hand, it is manifested (a) in white homosexual men’s reluctance to affirm black homosexual men’s sexual appeal and (b) in white homosexual men’s reluctance to engage in sexual activity with black homosexual men. On the other hand, it is manifested (a) in white homosexual men’s eagerness to affirm the sexual appeal only of, and to engage in sexual activity only with, black male bodies that are (a) all brawn, (b) with no brains, and (c) not bottom. In other words, the black male body must conform to three criteria in order to qualify as a specimen of black male sexual attractiveness: (a) it must have the wherewithal to fuck furiously, (b) it must not be distracted from fucking furiously, and (c) it must fuck furiously.

Taken together, I argue that these two plights, of the the black heterosexual female and the black homosexual male, constitute the morally wrongful white male online ambivalence to black femininity. In order to get access to the good of sexual affirmation and activity, black homosexual men and black heterosexual women require to ‘sign up to’ or to ‘play along with’ the racially subordinating terms of white male sexual attraction to them. Where they can and do achieve this, it is morally harmful (a) because it inhibits their exercise of the freedom of sexual self-definition (a freedom that white males exercise online without constraint), (b) because it lends credibility to the racially subordinating terms, by evincing that blacks are accurately represented in those terms and that blacks enjoy, or at least are comfortable with, being represented in those racially subordinating terms, and (c) because it involves the participation of the black person in her or his own oppression, and in the oppression of blacks generally. By contrast, where blacks will not, cannot, or simply do not play along with the racially subordinating terms of white male attraction to them, there is an imbalance of power in any interracial sexual interaction those blacks enter, rendering them vulnerable, for instance, to a greater willingness to engage in sexual activity that may prove detrimental to their health.

For its part, the internet exacerbates this moral wrong in three unique, and hitherto little discussed, ways. First, the solitary nature of searching for sex online deprives those subject to a relentless barrage of exclusionary attitudes of the most basic mechanism for coping with racism: the ears and the embraces of empathetic others. Insofar as solidarity and mutual support among the excluded is much more available in offline spaces where people search for sex, the internet renders searching for sex uniquely harmful to the victim of sexual racism.

Second, because, online, entry to interpersonal interaction is anonymous and unilateral exit from it is easy, people can, and people do, express, their exclusionary views with greater candour and greater vehemence, than they might, in a face-to-face, or otherwise personalised, encounter. This increase in candour and vehemence leads advertisers and searchers to forget the moral importance of how things seem to others, especially the way in which impoliteness can amount to moral disrespect.

Third, the emphasis that is placed, both by website designers (who invite advertisers to specify their race, and the race of those they are willing to meet for sexual interaction, from a drop-down menu of conventional racial groupings) and by advertisers (who use use text in their advertisements and private messages to express exclusionary racial preferences), on the physical body that sits behind the computer screen, increases the salience and significance of bodily capital in society. Bodily capital is the degree to which the body that a person inhabits corresponds with whatever ideals of beauty dominate in society.

As ever-greater concentrations of bodily capital become more acceptable to demand from the persons whom we deign to encounter and with whom we deign to enter into intimate interpersonal interaction, companionate capital, something that no one person can accumulate by herself, but which must rather be realised in the interpersonal activity of jointly deliberating about, jointly agreeing, and jointly executing shared goals over a significant period of time, ceases to be valued and ceases to be produced.

This is of great moral concern. since (a) companionship (quite independent of any concomitant sexual pleasure derived from the body of one’s companion) is necessary for having self-esteem, and thus for the pursuit of a conception of the good, and so for human flourishing, and (b) inter-group companionship between members of a group subordinate and stigmatised in society and members of a group dominant in that society is necessary for the complete destigmatisation of the subordinate and stigmatised social group.

ABSTRACT

Anderson, Elizabeth S. 2010. The imperative of integration. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Daniels, Jessie. 2009. Cyber racism: White supremacy online and the new attack on civil rights. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Holt, Thomas J., & Kristie R. Blevins. 2007 Examining sex work from the client’s perspective: assessing johns using on-line data. Deviant Behavior 28:333-354.

Feliciano, Cynthia, Belinda Robnett, & Golnaz Komaie. 2009. Gendered racial exclusion among white internet daters. Social Science Research 38:39–54.

Green, Adam Isaiah. 2008. The social organization of desire: The sexual fields approach. Sociological Theory 26(1):25-50.

Grekin, Elly. 2009. Ethnic identity in an online world. MA thesis, Ohio State University,

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